WAMPOW has gathered research abstracts from international and national scientific journals that document the impact that media has on women.
Specifically, abstracts include the following topics:
- Impact of media on women(magazines, TV, movies, and video games)
- Eating disorders and diet
- Self esteem and self image
2010
Body weight and beauty: the changing face of the ideal female body weight. Bonafini BA, Pozzilli P. Obes Rev. 2010 May 19. [Epub ahead of print]
Summary By observing the art of different eras, as well as the more recent existence of the media, it is obvious that there have been dramatic changes in what is considered a beautiful body. The ideal of female beauty has shifted from a symbol of fertility to one of mathematically calculated proportions. It has taken the form of an image responding to men's sexual desires. Nowadays there seems to be a tendency towards the destruction of the feminine, as androgynous fashion and appearance dominate our culture. The metamorphosis of the ideal woman follows the shifting role of women in society from mother and mistress to a career-orientated individual. Her depiction by artists across the centuries reveals this change in role and appearance that should be interpreted within the social and historical context of each era with its own theories of what constituted the ideal female body weight.
The attractive female body weight and female body dissatisfaction in 26 countries across 10 world regions: results of the international body project I. Swami V, et al Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 2010 Mar;36(3):309-25.
This study reports results from the first International Body Project (IBP-I), which surveyed 7,434 individuals in 10 major world regions about body weight ideals and body dissatisfaction. Participants completed the female Contour Drawing Figure Rating Scale (CDFRS) and self-reported their exposure to Western and local media. Results indicated there were significant cross-regional differences in the ideal female figure and body dissatisfaction, but effect sizes were small across high-socioeconomic-status (SES) sites. Within cultures, heavier bodies were preferred in low-SES sites compared to high-SES sites in Malaysia and South Africa (ds = 1.94-2.49) but not in Austria. Participant age, body mass index (BMI), and Western media exposure predicted body weight ideals. BMI and Western media exposure predicted body dissatisfaction among women. Our results show that body dissatisfaction and desire for thinness is commonplace in high-SES settings across world regions, highlighting the need for international attention to this problem.
"But I Like My Body": Positive body image characteristics and a holistic model for young-adult women. Wood-Barcalow NL, Tylka TL, Augustus-Horvath CL. Body Image. 2010 Mar;7(2):106-16. Epub 2010 Feb 13.
Extant body image research has provided a rich understanding of negative body image but a rather underdeveloped depiction of positive body image. Thus, this study used Grounded Theory to analyze interviews from 15 college women classified as having positive body image and five body image experts. Many characteristics of positive body image emerged, including appreciating the unique beauty and functionality of their body, filtering information (e.g., appearance commentary, media ideals) in a body-protective manner, defining beauty broadly, and highlighting their body's assets while minimizing perceived imperfections. A holistic model emerged: when women processed mostly positive and rejected negative source information, their body investment decreased and body evaluation became more positive, illustrating the fluidity of body image. Women reciprocally influenced these sources (e.g., mentoring others to love their bodies, surrounding themselves with others who promote body acceptance, taking care of their health), which, in turn, promoted increased positive source information.
A correlational and experimental examination of reality television viewing and interest in cosmetic surgery. Markey CN, Markey PM. Body Image. 2010 Mar;7(2):165-71. Epub 2010 Jan 20.
Two studies are presented that examine the influence of media messages about cosmetic surgery on youths' interest in altering their own physical appearance. In Study 1, 170 participants (59% female; M age=19.77 years) completed surveys assessing their impression of reality television shows featuring cosmetic surgery, appearance satisfaction, self-esteem, and their interest in cosmetic surgery. Results indicated that participants who reported favorable impressions of reality television shows featuring cosmetic surgery were more likely to indicate interest in pursuing surgery. One hundred and eighty-nine participants (51% female; M age=19.84 years) completed Study 2. Approximately half of the participants were exposed to a television message featuring a surgical make-over; the other half was exposed to a neutral message. Results indicated that participants who watched a television program about cosmetic surgery wanted to alter their own appearance using cosmetic surgery more than did participants who were not exposed to this program. Copyright 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Body image and eating disorders amongst Japanese adolescents. A review of the literature. Chisuwa N, O'Dea JA. Appetite. 2010 Feb;54(1):5-15. Epub 2009 Nov 24.
This review describes the prevalence of eating disorders and disordered eating behaviors as well as factors influencing body image disturbance amongst Japanese adolescents and compares the prevalence and trends with those of Westernized countries. Although eating disorders have been previously regarded as peculiar to Western society, they are now a more global issue with reports of non-Western countries including Japan having increasing rates of eating disorders. As the aetiology of eating disorders is related to societal norms, culture and ethnicity, their study requires an understanding of body image disturbance within different cultural contexts. Although considered less prevalent than in the West, Japan has an early history of eating disorder research and trends outlined in this review suggest that, as in Western countries the interest in, and study of eating disorders in Japan has increased during the 1980s. The prevalence of eating disorders in Japan based on available reviews, epidemiological studies and clinical reports ranges from 0.025% to 0.2% for AN and from 1.9% to 2.9% for BN. Studies suggest that the prevalence of eating disorders has increased significantly during the past two decades but the prevalence is still quite low compared to those in Western countries. Strategies for culturally appropriate prevention are discussed.
Body image dissatisfaction among adolescent schoolgirls in Jordan. Mousa TY, Mashal RH, Al-Domi HA, Jibril MA. Body Image. 2010 Jan;7(1):46-50. Epub 2009 Nov 12.
The present study has investigated the occurrence of body image dissatisfaction among adolescent schoolgirls in Amman, Jordan, and the risk factors that are known to predispose it including individual, familial and social variables. A sample of 326 adolescent girls aged 10-16 years was recruited from public and private schools in Amman. Participants completed a socio-demographic data sheet, eating attitude test, and body shape questionnaire. Approximately, 21.2% of participants displayed body image dissatisfaction in which physical changes associated with puberty and exhibiting negative eating attitudes were associated with this dissatisfaction. Additionally, mass media messages, as well as peers and family pressures towards thinness were associated with participants' preoccupation with their body image. In conclusion, negative body image perception was observed in the present sample. Therefore, well-controlled prospective studies and development of intervention programs on body image among adolescent girls in Jordan are needed. Copyright 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Bluemke, M., Friedrich, M., & Zumbach, J. (2010). The influence of violent and nonviolent computer games on implicit measures of aggressiveness. Aggress. Behavior, 36(1), 1-13.
We examined the causal relationship between playing violent video games and increases in aggressiveness by using implicit measures of aggressiveness, which have become important for accurately predicting impulsive behavioral tendencies. Ninety-six adults were randomly assigned to play one of three versions of a computer game that differed only with regard to game content (violent, peaceful, or abstract game), or to work on a reading task. In the games the environmental context, mouse gestures, and physiological arousal-as indicated by heart rate and skin conductance-were kept constant. In the violent game soldiers had to be shot, in the peaceful game sunflowers had to be watered, and the abstract game simply required clicking colored triangles. Five minutes of play did not alter trait aggressiveness, yet an Implicit Association Test detected a change in implicit aggressive self-concept. Playing a violent game produced a significant increase in implicit aggressive self-concept relative to playing a peaceful game. The well-controlled study closes a gap in the research on the causality of the link between violence exposure in computer games and aggressiveness with specific regard to implicit measures. We discuss the significance of importing recent social-cognitive theory into aggression research and stress the need for further development of aggression-related implicit measures.
2009
Want SC. (2009). Meta-analytic moderators of experimental exposure to media portrayals of women on female appearance satisfaction: Social comparisons as automatic processes.Body Image. 6(4):257-69. Epub 2009 Aug 28.
Experimental exposure to idealized media portrayals of women is thought to induce social comparisons in female viewers and thereby to be generally detrimental to female viewers' satisfaction with their own appearance. Through meta-analysis, the present paper examines the impact of moderators of this effect, some identified and updated from a prior meta-analysis and some that have hitherto received little attention. Participants' pre-existing appearance concerns and the processing instructions participants were given when exposed to media portrayals were found to significantly moderate effect sizes. With regard to processing instructions, a novel and counter-intuitive pattern was revealed; effect sizes were smallest when participants were instructed to focus on the appearance of women in media portrayals, and largest when participants processed the portrayals on a distracting, non-appearance dimension. These results are interpreted through a framework that suggests that social comparisons are automatic processes, the effects of which can be modified through conscious processing.
Rodgers R, Chabrol H. (2009). [The impact of exposure to images of ideally thin models on body dissatisfaction in young French and Italian women]Encephale. 2009 Jun;35(3):262-8. Epub 2008 Sep 20.
AIMS: The thin-ideal of feminine beauty has a strong impact on body image and plays a central part in eating disorders. This ideal is widely promoted by the media images that flood western societies. Although the harmful effects of exposure to thin-ideal media images have been repeatedly demonstrated experimentally in English-speaking western countries, no such studies exist in southern Europe. There is evidence to suggest that the use of average-size models could reduce these negative effects. This study investigates body image amongst French and Italian students following exposure to media images of thin or average-size models, with a neutral or supportive slogan. METHODS: The data were gathered in three locations: the psychology departments of the Universities of Padua, Italy, and Toulouse, France, and lastly high schools in the Toulouse area. A total of 299 girls took part in the study; their average age was 19.9 years old (S.D.=2.54) In order to investigate the effects of media images, we created three fake advertisements, allegedly promoting body-cream. The first advertisement displayed an ideally-thin model accompanied by a neutral slogan. In the second, the model was average-size with the same neutral slogan. The last advertisement also contained the average-size model, but with a supportive slogan designed to convey acceptance of deviations from the social norms of thinness. The participants first graded themselves on a VAS of body dissatisfaction (0 to 10). On the basis of this score, we created a first group containing girls reporting body dissatisfaction (VAS>or=5), the second with those reporting no body dissatisfaction (VAS<5). Participants were then randomly exposed to one of the three advertisements, after which they filled in the body dissatisfaction sub-scale of the Eating Disorders Inventory (EDI-2). RESULTS: The results showed that girls with initial body dissatisfaction reported higher body dissatisfaction after being exposed to images of ideally thin models than images of average-size models (F(1.32)=4.64, p=0.039). However, there was no significant difference between body dissatisfaction scores reported after exposure to images of average-size models accompanied by neutral or supportive slogans (F(1.39)=0.093, p=0.76). CONCLUSIONS: This study illustrates the negative effects of exposure to thin-ideal media images among students with body dissatisfaction. The use of average-size models in the media and advertising might help reduce these effects. No improvement was obtained via the use of a supportive slogan. These results highlight the importance of media literacy campaigns in the prevention of eating disorders.
Sperry S, Thompson JK, Sarwer DB, Cash TF. Cosmetic surgery reality TV viewership: relations with cosmetic surgery attitudes, body image, and disordered eating.Ann Plast Surg. 2009 Jan;62(1):7-11.
BACKGROUND: According to the American Society of Plastic Surgeons (2007), the number of cosmetic procedures has increased to over 10 million in 2006, representing a 48% increase from 2000. This increase in cosmetic surgery prevalence is paralleled by a surge in reality cosmetic surgery television programming. METHODS: The current study examined the relationships among cosmetic surgery reality TV viewership, cosmetic surgery attitudes, body image, and disordered eating in a sample of 2057 college women. RESULTS: Viewership of reality cosmetic surgery shows was significantly related to more favorable cosmetic surgery attitudes, perceived pressure to have cosmetic surgery, past attainment of a cosmetic procedure, a decreased fear of surgery, as well as overall body dissatisfaction, media internalization, and disordered eating. CONCLUSIONS: Although the current study is correlational, it provides a framework for future hypothesis testing and elucidates the link between contemporary media influences, body dissatisfaction, disordered eating, and cosmetic surgery attitudes. Additionally, the findings indicate that surgeons may want to assess the relevance of cosmetic surgery reality TV viewership for patients' attitudes towards and expectations about cosmetic surgery.
Swami V. Body appreciation, media influence, and weight status predict consideration of cosmetic surgery among female undergraduates.Body Image. 2009 Sep;6(4):315-7. Epub 2009 Aug 4.
The current study examined the association between consideration of cosmetic surgery, body appreciation, media influence, and participant demographics. In total, 322 female university students completed the Consider subscale of the Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery Scale, the third revision of Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Scale (SATAQ-3), the Body Appreciation Scale (BAS), and provided their demographic details. Bivariate correlations showed that consideration of cosmetic surgery was significantly and positively correlated with three of the SATAQ-3 subscales and negatively correlated with BAS scores, age, and body mass index (BMI). A multiple regression showed that the only significant predictors of consideration of cosmetic surgery were greater media influence, less body appreciation, and lower BMI. These results are discussed in relation to the extant literature on attitudes towards cosmetic surgery.
Boxer P, Huesmann LR, Bushman BJ, O'Brien M, Moceri D. The role of violent media preference in cumulative developmental risk for violence and general aggression.J Youth Adolesc. 2009 Mar;38(3):417-28. Epub 2008 Sep 9.
The impact of exposure to violence in the media on the long-term development and short-term expression of aggressive behavior has been well documented. However, gaps in this literature remain, and in particular the role of violent media exposure in shaping violent and other serious antisocial behavior has not been investigated. Further, studies of violent media effects typically have not sampled from populations with confirmed histories of violent and/or nonviolent antisocial behavior. In this study, we analyzed data on 820 youth, including 390 juvenile delinquents and 430 high school students, to examine the relation of violent media use to involvement in violence and general aggression. Using criterion scores developed through cross-informant modeling of data from self, parent/guardian, and teacher/staff reports, we observed that childhood and adolescent violent media preferences contributed significantly to the prediction of violence and general aggression from cumulative risk totals. Findings represent a new and important direction for research on the role of violent media use in the broader matrix of risk factors for youth violence.
From the American Academy of Pediatrics: Policy statement--Media violence.
Fuld GL, Mulligan DA, Altmann TR, Brown A, Christakis DA, Clarke-Pearson K, Dreyer BP, Falik HL, Nelson KG, O'Keeffe GS, Strasburger VC, Milteer RM, Shifrin DL, Brody M, Wilcox B, Anderson CA, Gentile DA, Milteer RM, Shifrin DL, Steiner GL, Noland VL. Pediatrics. 2009 Nov;124(5):1495-503. Epub 2009 Oct 19.
Exposure to violence in media, including television, movies, music, and video games, represents a significant risk to the health of children and adolescents. Extensive research evidence indicates that media violence can contribute to aggressive behavior, desensitization to violence, nightmares, and fear of being harmed. Pediatricians should assess their patients' level of media exposure and intervene on media-related health risks. Pediatricians and other child health care providers can advocate for a safer media environment for children by encouraging media literacy, more thoughtful and proactive use of media by children and their parents, more responsible portrayal of violence by media producers, and more useful and effective media ratings. Office counseling has been shown to be effective.
The public health risks of media violence: a meta-analytic review.
Ferguson CJ, Kilburn J.J Pediatr. 2009 May;154(5):759-63. Epub 2009 Feb 23.
OBJECTIVE: To conduct a meta-analytic review of studies that examine the impact of violent media on aggressive behavior and to determine whether this effect could be explained through methodological problems inherent in this research field. STUDY DESIGN: A detailed literature search identified peer-reviewed articles addressing media violence effects. Effect sizes were calculated for all studies. Effect sizes were adjusted for observed publication bias. RESULTS: Publication bias was a problem for studies of aggressive behavior, and methodological problems such as the use of poor aggression measures inflated effect size. Once corrected for publication bias, studies of media violence effects provided little support for the hypothesis that media violence is associated with higher aggression. The corrected overall effect size for all studies was r = .08. CONCLUSIONS: Results from the current analysis do not support the conclusion that media violence leads to aggressive behavior. It cannot be concluded at this time that media violence presents a significant public health risk.
The relationship between media exposure and antifat attitudes: the role of dysfunctional appearance beliefs.
Lin L, Reid K. Body Image. 2009 Jan;6(1):52-5. Epub 2008 Nov 7.
This study examined the relationship between media exposure, antifat attitudes, and body dissatisfaction, as well as the mediating effect of dysfunctional appearance beliefs. A sample of 112 women completed surveys measuring media exposure, antifat attitudes, body dissatisfaction, and dysfunctional beliefs about appearance. It was found that time spent reading fashion magazines was positively correlated with antifat attitudes and that this relationship was mediated by dysfunctional beliefs about appearance. Measures of antifat attitudes and body dissatisfaction were both found to be correlated with endorsement of dysfunctional beliefs about appearance and body mass index. Results suggest that time spent reading fashion magazines may be related to antifat attitudes through dysfunctional appearance beliefs.
2008
Psicothema. 2008 Nov;20(4):521-4.
Media influences on body satisfaction in female students.
Tucci S, Peters J.
The present study examined the immediate impact of media portrayals on evaluations of body shape and disordered eating symptomatology in female undergraduates. By using a repeated measures design, participants (N= 42) were exposed on two consecutive occasions to magazine images representing the thin-ideal physique and overweight models. Body satisfaction was recorded both before and after exposure to the images and eating disorder symptomatology was measured following both exposures. Results showed that participants' body satisfaction scores decreased following exposure to the thin-ideal physique and increased following exposure to the larger models. When analysing eating disorder symptomatology, body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness were higher following exposure to slender media images compared to the larger media images. However, exposure to the thin-ideal physique did not increase disordered eating behaviours. These results provide evidence that one brief exposure to media images could exert immediate impact on some behaviours, attitudes and perceptions.
Appetite. 2008 Nov;51(3):530-7. Epub 2008 Apr 8.
The bold and the beautiful. Influence of body size of televised media models on body dissatisfaction and actual food intake.
Anschutz DJ, Engels RC, Becker ES, van Strien T.
The effects of exposure to televised thin and average size models on body dissatisfaction and actual food intake were examined. Normal weight female students (N=104) were exposed to a 30-min movie clip featuring beautiful girls. Half of them viewed the movie clip in normal screen size (4:3) and the other half viewed the same movie clip in broad screen size (16:9), in which the body size of the actresses was slightly stretched breadthways. Actual food intake while watching and body dissatisfaction afterwards was examined. Additionally, restrained eating was assessed as a possible moderating variable. Two interaction effects were found between screen size and restrained eating on body dissatisfaction and actual food intake. Restrained eaters tended to feel worse and eat less in the average size condition compared to the thin model condition, whereas unrestrained eaters felt worse and ate less in the thin model condition compared to the average size condition. So, body size of televised images affected body dissatisfaction and food intake, differentially for restrained and unrestrained eaters. The screen sizes used correspond with widely used screen sizes nowadays enhancing the practical relevance of the study, since screen size might affect body dissatisfaction and food intake in daily life as well.
Body Image. 2008 Mar;5(1):70-9. Epub 2007 Sep 21.
Susceptibility for thin ideal media and eating styles.
Anschutz DJ, Engels RC, Van Strien T.
This study examined the relations between susceptibility for thin ideal media and restrained, emotional and external eating, directly and indirectly through body dissatisfaction. Thin ideal media susceptibility, body dissatisfaction and eating styles were measured in a sample of 163 female students. Structural equation modelling was used for analyses, controlling for BMI. Higher susceptibility for thin ideal media was directly related to higher scores on all eating styles, and indirectly related to higher restrained and emotional eating through elevated levels of body dissatisfaction. So, thin ideal media susceptibility was not only related to restraint through body dissatisfaction, but also directly. Emotional eaters might be more vulnerable for negative affect, whereas external eaters might be more sensitive to external cues in general.
Eat Disord. 2008 Jul-Sep;16(4):294-307.
Internalization of the ultra-thin ideal: positive implicit associations with underweight fashion models are associated with drive for thinness in young women.
Ahern AL, Bennett KM, Hetherington MM.
This study examined whether young women who make implicit associations between underweight models and positive attributes report elevated eating disorder symptoms. Ninety nine female undergraduates completed a weight based implicit association test (IAT) and self report measures of body dissatisfaction, thin-ideal internalization and eating disorder symptoms. IAT scores were associated with drive for thinness (r = -0.26, p < 0.05). This relationship was moderated by attitude importance. The relationship between drive for thinness and IAT scores was stronger (r = 0.34; p < 0.02) in participants who report that the media is an important source of information about fashion and being attractive. The IAT used in the current study is sensitive enough to discriminate between participants on drive for thinness. Women who have developed cognitive schemas that associate being underweight with positive attributes report higher eating disorder symptoms. Attitude importance is highlighted as a key construct in thin ideal internalization.
Adolesc Med State Art Rev. 2008 Dec;19(3):521-46, x-xi.
Hogan MJ, Strasburger VC.
Adolescence is a time of tremendous change in physical appearance. Many adolescents report dissatisfaction with their body shape and size. Forming one's body image is a complex process, influenced by family, peers, and media messages. Increasing evidence shows that the combination of ubiquitous ads for foods and emphasis on female beauty and thinness in both advertising and programming leads to confusion and dissatisfaction for many young people. Sociocultural factors, specifically media exposure, play an important role in the development of disordered body image. Of significant concern, studies have revealed a link between media exposure and the likelihood of having symptoms of disordered eating or a frank eating disorder. Pediatricians and other adults must work to promote media education and make media healthier for young people. More research is needed to identify the most vulnerable children and adolescents.
Adolesc Med State Art Rev. 2008 Dec;19(3):431-49, viii-ix.
Jordan AB, Kramer-Golinkoff EK, Strasburger VC.
In this article we examine media use and its relationship to adolescent overweight/obesity and adolescent eating disorders. We consider the potential mechanisms through which exposure to media during adolescence (both amount of time and choice of content) might exacerbate unhealthy eating and physical activity patterns. We consider strategies that health care providers can use to identify problematic media use and suggestions they might offer to adolescents and their parents for ways to make media a more positive agent in young people's healthy development.
Pediatrics. 2008 Nov;122(5):929-37.
Linkages between internet and other media violence with seriously violent behavior by youth.
Ybarra ML, Diener-West M, Markow D, Leaf PJ, Hamburger M, Boxer P.
OBJECTIVE: The goal was to examine the association between violence in the media and the expression of seriously violent behavior among older children and teenagers in a national sample. METHODS: The Growing up with Media survey was a national, online survey of 1588 youths that was conducted in August and September 2006. Participants were 10- to 15-year-old youths who had used the Internet at least once in the past 6 months. The main outcome measure was self-reported seriously violent behavior, including (1) shooting or stabbing someone, (2) aggravated assault, (3) robbery, and (4) sexual assault. RESULTS: Five percent of youths reported engaging in seriously violent behavior in the past 12 months. Thirty-eight percent reported exposure to violence online. Exposures to violence in the media, both online and off-line, were associated with significantly elevated odds for concurrently reporting seriously violent behavior. Compared with otherwise similar youths, those who indicated that many, most, or all of the Web sites they visited depicted real people engaged in violent behavior were significantly more likely to report seriously violent behavior. After adjustment for underlying differences in youth characteristics, respondents' alcohol use, propensity to respond to stimuli with anger, delinquent peers, parental monitoring, and exposures to violence in the community also were associated with significantly increased odds of concurrently reporting seriously violent behavior. CONCLUSIONS: Exposure to violence in the media is associated with concurrent reports of seriously violent behavior across media (eg, games and music). Newer forms of violent media seem to be especially concerning.
Ip K, Jarry JL.(2008). Investment in body image for self-definition results in greater vulnerability to the thin media than does investment in appearance management. Body Image. 5(1):59-69.
This study investigated the effect of thin images according to two dimensions of body-image (BI) investment. Ninety-five females were classified as high or low investors based on the Appearance Schemas Inventory-Revised Self-Evaluative Salience (SES) and Motivational Salience (MS) subscales. Participants viewed advertisements portraying either the thin ideal or products. Results indicated that both women high in SES and MS reported lowered appearance self-esteem but greater BI importance following thin exposures. However, only the high SES group reported greater BI dissatisfaction and importance of current-ideal discrepancies after seeing thin images. Although highly invested women (regardless of their motivation for investment) are more responsive to thin media images than are women low in investment, those invested for self-definition are affected on more dimensions than are those invested for appearance management.
Legenbauer T, Rühl I, Vocks S. (2008). Influence of appearance-related TV commercials on body image state. Behav Modif. 32(3):352-71.
This study investigates the influence of media exposure on body image state in eating-disordered (ED) patients. The attitudinal and perceptual components of body image are assessed, as well as any associations with dysfunctional cognitions and behavioral consequences. Twenty-five ED patients and 25 non-ED controls (ND) viewed commercials either featuring appearance (AC; 5 min) or not featuring appearance (NC; 5 min). Both perceptual and attitudinal body image components changed markedly after the AC condition for ED patients, compared with the ND group and NC condition. Cognitions referring to dietary restraint and internalization/social comparison also changed significantly in ED patients depending on the experimental manipulation, whereas thoughts about body and self-esteem did not. The results suggest that media exposure acts as a stimulus that triggers body-related schemas. Partial support is given to cognitive-behavioral models of eating disorders, which postulate an association between cognitive bias, body image disturbances, and compensatory behavioral consequences.
Yager Z, O'Dea JA. (2008). Prevention programs for body image and eating disorders on University campuses: a review of large, controlled interventions. Health Promot Int.
Body dissatisfaction, dieting, eating disorders and exercise disorders are prevalent among male and female university students worldwide. Male students are also increasingly adopting health-damaging, body-image-related behaviors such as excessive weight lifting, body building and steroid abuse. Given the severity and difficulty of treating eating disorders, prevention of these problems is a recognized public health goal. Health promotion and health education programs have been conducted in the university setting since the mid 1980s, but few have achieved significant improvements in target health attitudes and behaviors. In this paper, 27 large, randomized and controlled health promotion and health education programs to improve body dissatisfaction, dieting and disordered eating and exercise behaviors of male and female college students are reviewed. In general, health education programs to improve body image and prevent eating disorders in the university setting have been limited by small sample sizes and the exclusion of male students. The majority of studies were conducted among either female undergraduate psychology students or women that were recruited using on-campus advertising. The latter reduces the ability to generalize results to the whole university population, or the general community. In addition, there has been a paucity of longitudinal studies that are methodologically sound, as only 82% (22/27) of interventions included in the review used random assignment of groups, and only 52% (n = 14) included follow-up testing. Information-based, cognitive behavioral and psycho-educational approaches have been the least effective at improving body image and eating problems among university students. Successful elements for future initiatives are identified as taking a media literacy- and dissonance-based educational approach, incorporating health education activities that build self-esteem, and using computers and the internet as a delivery medium. A newly designed program for Australian university students is described.
Strahan EJ, Lafrance A, Wilson AE, Ethier N, Spencer SJ, Zanna MP.
(2008). Victoria's dirty secret: how sociocultural norms influence adolescent girls and women. Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 34(2):288-301.
The present studies tested whether the salience of sociocultural norms for ideal appearance leads women to base their self-worth more strongly on appearance, which in turn leads them to feel more concerned with others' perceptions and less satisfied with their bodies. Study 1 tested this model by manipulating the salience of the sociocultural norm among female university students. The model was supported. In Study 2 an intervention challenging the legitimacy of the sociocultural norm was delivered to female and male adolescents. Compared to controls, females who received this intervention were less accepting of the sociocultural norms for appearance, based their self-worth less strongly on appearance, and in turn were less concerned with others' perceptions and were more satisfied with their bodies. The implications for women are discussed.
2007
J Adolesc Health. 2007 Dec;41(6 Suppl 1):S6-13.
The impact of electronic media violence: scientific theory and research.
Huesmann LR.
Since the early 1960s, research evidence has been accumulating that suggests that exposure to violence in television, movies, video games, cell phones, and on the Internet increases the risk of violent behavior on the viewer's part, just as growing up in an environment filled with real violence increases the risk of them behaving violently. In the current review this research evidence is critically assessed and the psychological theory that explains why exposure to violence has detrimental effects for both the short and long-term is elaborated. Finally the size of the "media violence effect" is compared with some other well-known threats to society to estimate how important a threat it should be considered.
Friederich HC, Uher R, Brooks S, Giampietro V, Brammer M, Williams SC, Herzog W, Treasure J, Campbell IC. I'm not as slim as that girl: Neural bases of body shape self-comparison to media images. Neuroimage. 2007 Aug 15;37(2):674-681.
The aim of the present study was to assess the impact of images of slim female fashion models on healthy young women. Brain responses to images of slim-idealized bodies (active condition) and interior designs (control condition) were measured using functional neuroimaging in 18 healthy young women. Instructions encouraged the participants to compare their own body shape/own home with the one in the images. Participants rated the level of anxiety that they experienced while exposed to the images. In the active relative to the control condition, participants activated body shape processing networks, including the lateral fusiform gyrus on both sides, the right inferior parietal lobule, the right lateral prefrontal cortex and the left anterior cingulate. The level of reported anxiety during the exposure to slim bodies correlated with established measures of shape and weight concern and with brain activations in bilateral basal ganglia, left amygdala, bilateral dorsal anterior cingulate, and left inferior lateral prefrontal cortex. Brain networks associated with anxiety induced by self-comparison to slim images may be involved in the genesis of body dissatisfaction and hence with vulnerability to eating disorders.
Eddy KT, Hennessey M, Thompson-Brenner HEating pathology in East African women: the role of media exposure and globalization. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2007 Mar;195(3):196-202.
Eating disorder (ED) pathology and its relation to media exposure and globalization were assessed in a sample of young Tanzanian females (N = 214; 19.4 years +/- 3.8 years). Participants completed Kiswahili versions of a DSM-IV ED symptom clinical interview, the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI), and a media exposure/globalization questionnaire. One third endorsed cognitive ED symptoms; bingeing (10%) and purging (5%) were less common. Four women (1.9%) met modified criteria for anorexia nervosa, one for bulimia nervosa, and 10 (4.7%) reported clinically significant ED pathology consistent with an ED not otherwise specified diagnosis. Media exposure and Western exposure (e.g., travel abroad) were positively associated with ED symptoms. The intended factor structure of the EDI was not supported. Eating pathology is present in this developing nation and is most common in subpopulations with increased exposure to Western culture. Future research should replicate these findings to clarify the role of Western media in the development of ED pathology.
Harper K, Sperry S, Thompson JK. 2007 Viewership of pro-eating disorder websites: Association with body image and eating disturbances. Int J Eat Disord.
A sample of 1575 women were surveyed for viewership of a variety of websites, including those promoting disordered eating (pro-eating disorder) and those providing information about eating disorders (professional). RESULTS:: Individuals who frequented pro-eating disorder sites had higher levels of body dissatisfaction and eating disturbance than a control group. The group who frequented only professional information websites, but not pro-eating disorder websites, differed from controls on only one of the four measures of disturbance. The pro-eating disorder group did not differ from the professional group on any measure. CONCLUSION:: The findings offer moderate evidence indicating that viewers of pro-eating disorder sites have higher levels of disturbance than a control sample of nonviewers, but limited evidence that those who view pro-eating disorder sites differ from individuals who view professional sites offering information regarding eating disorders. The findings are discussed in light of the difficulty determining causality in this area of inquiry and a cautionary note regarding the potential iatrogenic effects of this type of research is offered.
Ricciardelli LA, McCabe MP, Williams RJ, Thompson JK.
The role of ethnicity and culture in body image and disordered eating among males. Clin Psychol Rev. 2007 Jun;27(5):582-606
An increasing number of researchers have examined body image concerns, disordered eating, and other behaviors associated with increasing muscle size among men from different cultural groups. However, to date there has been no synthesis or evaluation of these studies. In this paper we specifically review studies which have included a comparison between males from different cultural groups with White males on body image concerns or other related behaviors. The groups include Blacks, Hispanic Americans, Asians, Native Americans, Pacific Islanders, and men from Middle Eastern countries. Overall, evidence suggests that males from a range of cultural groups engage in more extreme body change strategies and binge eating than Whites. On the other hand, there is no consistent pattern which summarizes the nature of body image concerns across the different cultures. Mediating and/or moderating variables are proposed to account for the inconsistent findings. These include body build, levels of acculturation, socio-economic status, media exposure, and internalization of the muscular and lean body ideal.
van den Berg P, Neumark-Sztainer D, Hannan PJ, Haines J.
Is dieting advice from magazines helpful or harmful? Five-year associations with weight-control behaviors and psychological outcomes in adolescents. Pediatrics. 2007 Jan;119(1):e30-7.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the association between frequent reading of magazine articles about dieting/weight loss and weight-control behaviors and psychological outcomes 5 years later in a sample of adolescents. Data are from Project EAT (Eating Among Teens), a 5-year longitudinal study of eating, activity, weight, and related variables in 2516 middle and high school students. In 1999 (time 1), participants completed surveys and had their height and weight measured. In 2004 (time 2), participants were resurveyed. RESULTS: For female adolescents, the frequency of healthy, unhealthy, and extreme weight-control behaviors increased with increasing magazine reading after adjusting for time 1 weight-control behaviors, weight importance, BMI, and demographic covariates. The odds of engaging in unhealthy weight-control behaviors (such as fasting, skipping meals, and smoking more cigarettes) were twice as high for the most frequent readers compared with those who did not read magazine articles about dieting and weight loss. The odds of using extreme weight-control behaviors (such as vomiting or using laxatives) were 3 times higher in the highest frequency readers compared with those who did not read such magazines. There were no significant associations for either weight-control behaviors or psychological outcomes for male adolescents. CONCLUSIONS: Frequent reading of magazine articles about dieting/weight loss strongly predicted unhealthy weight-control behaviors in adolescent girls, but not boys, 5 years later. Findings from this study, in conjunction with findings from previous studies, suggest a need for interventions aimed at reducing exposure to, and the importance placed on, media messages regarding dieting and weight loss.
Ayala GX, Mickens L, Galindo P, Elder JP. Acculturation and body image perception among Latino youth. Ethn Health. 2007 Jan;12(1):21-41.
One hundred and sixty-seven Latino youth were surveyed as part of a tailored nutrition communication intervention. The youth's mean age was 12.81 years (SD = 2.74) and 54% were female. Mean self-rated health was 2.59 (SD = 1.02; range: 1 = good to 5 = poor), despite 70% reporting a desire to be thinner. Using age and gender-specific growth charts, 16% of the youth were classified as at risk for overweight and 34% were classified as overweight. RESULTS: Among adolescents, girls (p < or = 0.001), youth who were classified as at risk for or being overweight (p < or = 0.001), and who more strongly recognized and agreed with socially sanctioned standards of appearance as represented in the media (Standardized beta St. beta = 1.86, p < or = 0.001) were more dissatisfied with their body image (R(2) = 0.57). Among children, being at risk for or overweight (p < or = 0.001), reporting a stronger affiliation with the Mexican culture (St. beta = 0.84, p < or = 0.01) and stronger expectations that a healthy diet was associated with improved appearance (St. beta = 0.63, p < or = 0.05) predicted greater body image dissatisfaction (R(2) = 0.55). CONCLUSION: Interventions that address sociocultural attitudes toward appearance may be effective at reducing both the prevalence of body image dissatisfaction and disordered eating.
Psychiatr Q. 2007 Dec;78(4):309-16.
The good, the bad and the ugly: a meta-analytic review of positive and negative effects of violent video games.
Ferguson CJ.
OBJECTIVE: Video game violence has become a highly politicized issue for scientists and the general public. There is continuing concern that playing violent video games may increase the risk of aggression in players. Less often discussed is the possibility that playing violent video games may promote certain positive developments, particularly related to visuospatial cognition. The objective of the current article was to conduct a meta-analytic review of studies that examine the impact of violent video games on both aggressive behavior and visuospatial cognition in order to understand the full impact of such games. METHODS: A detailed literature search was used to identify peer-reviewed articles addressing violent video game effects. Effect sizes r (a common measure of effect size based on the correlational coefficient) were calculated for all included studies. Effect sizes were adjusted for observed publication bias. RESULTS: Results indicated that publication bias was a problem for studies of both aggressive behavior and visuospatial cognition. Once corrected for publication bias, studies of video game violence provided no support for the hypothesis that violent video game playing is associated with higher aggression. However playing violent video games remained related to higher visuospatial cognition (r (x) = 0.36). CONCLUSIONS: Results from the current analysis did not support the conclusion that violent video game playing leads to aggressive behavior. However, violent video game playing was associated with higher visuospatial cognition. It may be advisable to reframe the violent video game debate in reference to potential costs and benefits of this medium.
Knauss C, Paxton SJ, Alsaker FD. (2007). Relationships amongst body dissatisfaction, internalisation of the media body ideal and perceived pressure from media in adolescent girls and boys. Body Image. 4(4):353-60
Sociocultural factors that underpin gender differences in body dissatisfaction have not frequently been explored. We examined the relative contribution of internalization of media body ideals and perceived pressure to achieve this ideal in explaining body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls. A sample of 819 boys and 791 girls completed measures of internalization of body ideals, perceived pressure, body mass index (BMI) and body dissatisfaction. As expected, girls showed higher body dissatisfaction, internalization and pressure than boys. Internalization, pressure and BMI contributed to the prediction of body dissatisfaction in boys and in girls although these variables explained less variance in body dissatisfaction in boys. In addition, for girls the strongest predictor of body dissatisfaction was internalization, whilst for boys the strongest predictor was pressure. Differences in extent of internalization and pressure may contribute to higher body dissatisfaction in girls than boys. These sociocultural factors may affect girls and boys differently.
Strahan EJ, Spencer SJ, Zanna MP. (2007). Don't take another bite: how sociocultural norms for appearance affect women's eating behavior. Body Image. (4):331-42.
Four studies tested the impact of exposure to thin images on women's eating behavior. In Study 1, women who were exposed to commercials containing thin models ate less in a taste test than women exposed to neutral commercials. The next two studies revealed that the impact of the thin images could be reduced by challenging the sociocultural norms for appearance. In Study 2, including images of relatively heavier women who have been successful in life (an indirect challenge to the norm) attenuated the impact of the thin images on women's eating behavior. Study 3 demonstrated that convincing women that their peers do not endorse the sociocultural norms also reduced the impact of the thin images. In Study 4, we found that exposure to thin images led to activation of an association between heaviness and rejection and that the more this association was activated, the less participants ate.
Myers TA, Crowther JH. (2007). Sociocultural pressures, thin-ideal internalization, self-objectification, and body dissatisfaction: could feminist beliefs be a moderating factor? Body Image. 4(3):296-308
Theory and research suggest that sociocultural pressures, thin-ideal internalization, and self-objectification are associated with body dissatisfaction, while feminist beliefs may serve a protective function. This research examined thin-ideal internalization and self-objectification as mediators and feminist beliefs as a moderator in the relationship between sociocultural pressures to meet the thin-ideal and body dissatisfaction. Female undergraduate volunteers (N=195) completed self-report measures assessing sociocultural influences, feminist beliefs, thin-ideal internalization, self-objectification, and body dissatisfaction. Multisample structural equation modeling showed that feminist beliefs moderate the relationship between media awareness and thin-ideal internalization, but not the relationship between social influence and thin-ideal internalization. Research and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.
van den Berg P, Paxton SJ, Keery H, Wall M, Guo J, Neumark-Sztainer D. (2007). Body dissatisfaction and body comparison with media images in males and females. Body Image. 4(3):257-68
This study examined the role of media body comparison as a mediator of the relationships between psychological factors and sociocultural pressures to be thin and body dissatisfaction in both females and males. Participants were 1,386 females (mean age = 19.37 years) and 1,130 males (mean age = 19.46) from diverse backgrounds who completed a self-report questionnaire. Path analysis was used to test a cross-sectional model in which media body comparison mediated the impact of self-esteem, depressive mood, parent dieting environment, friend dieting, TV exposure, magazine message exposure, weight teasing and body mass index (BMI) on body dissatisfaction. In females, media body comparison partially or fully mediated relationships between self-esteem, depressive mood, friend dieting, magazine message exposure and BMI, and body dissatisfaction. In males, media body comparison was not a significant predictor of body dissatisfaction. This research particularly highlights the need to further examine processes that are involved in the development of body dissatisfaction in males.
Bell BT, Lawton R, Dittmar H. (2007). The impact of thin models in music videos on adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction. Body Image. 4(2):137-45.
Music videos are a particularly influential, new form of mass media for adolescents, which include the depiction of scantily clad female models whose bodies epitomise the ultra-thin sociocultural ideal for young women. The present study is the first exposure experiment that examines the impact of thin models in music videos on the body dissatisfaction of 16-19-year-old adolescent girls (n=87). First, participants completed measures of positive and negative affect, body image, and self-esteem. Under the guise of a memory experiment, they then either watched three music videos, listened to three songs (from the videos), or learned a list of words. Affect and body image were assessed afterwards. In contrast to the music listening and word-learning conditions, girls who watched the music videos reported significantly elevated scores on an adaptation of the Body Image States Scale after exposure, indicating increased body dissatisfaction. Self-esteem was not found to be a significant moderator of this relationship. Implications and future research are discussed.
Saraceni R, Russell-Mayhew S.(2007). Cultural expectations of thinness in women: a partial replication and update of magazine content. Eat Weight Disord. 12(3):e68-74.
OBJECTIVE: To determine if magazine articles in mainstream women's magazines, continue to emphasize weight reduction. METHOD: Articles devoted to diet, exercise, and cosmetic surgery were tabulated from January 1989 to April 2007 in eight popular women's magazines. RESULTS: The number of cosmetic surgery articles has substantially increased since 1989, while exercise articles continue to decline. Diet for weight loss articles have progressively decreased since 1989, with a marginal increase between 2003-2007. CONCLUSION: The upward trend in cosmetic surgery articles indicates that cosmetic surgery is now viewed as an alternate means to diet and exercise that women may choose to alter their physical appearance. One of the implications of moving to cosmetic surgery as a means to conform is that when it comes to female beautification, there are few extremes.
Wasilenko KA, Kulik JA, Wanic RA. (2007). Effects of social comparisons with peers on women's body satisfaction and exercise behavior. Int J Eat Disord. 40(8):740-5.
OBJECTIVE: Although exposure to thin-ideal females in the media has been shown to increase women's body dissatisfaction, only a few studies have examined the effects of comparisons with peers, and no prior work has studied the effects of peer comparisons in a naturalistic setting or on objective behavior. METHOD: Female undergraduates (n = 45) in a campus gym who exercised on a target apparatus were assigned to have a fit-peer, unfit-peer, or no-peer (control) exercise within their view on a nearby apparatus. Objective time spent exercising and body satisfaction reports were collected. RESULTS: Exposure to a fit peer had undermining effects on women's body satisfaction and exercise duration, whereas an unfit peer produced no compensating greater body satisfaction but did elicit longer exercise duration relative to controls. CONCLUSION: Incidental comparisons with fit versus unfit peers can affect women's body satisfaction and fitness-related behavior in a naturalistic setting. (c) 2007 by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Mazzeo SE, Trace SE, Mitchell KS, Gow RW. (2007). Effects of a reality TV cosmetic surgery makeover program on eating disordered attitudes and behaviors. Eat Behav. 8(3):390-7.
OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effects of a reality TV cosmetic surgery program on eating disordered attitudes, behaviors, mood, anxiety, and self-esteem. METHOD: Participants (N=147 women) completed baseline surveys and were subsequently randomly assigned to one of two conditions: one in which they watched a reality TV cosmetic surgery program (The Swan) and one in which they watched a reality TV home improvement program (Clean Sweep). Assessments were conducted immediately post-video and two weeks later. RESULTS: Women in the cosmetic surgery program group who reported higher internalization of the thin-ideal at baseline manifested lower self-esteem at posttesting. Among White women, those who watched the cosmetic surgery program reported greater perceptions of media pressures to be thin and stronger endorsement of their ability to control their body's appearance after watching the video. These differences persisted over a two-week follow-up period. DISCUSSION: Reality TV cosmetic surgery makeover programs may contribute to eating disordered attitudes and behaviors among young women, particularly those who have internalized the thin body-ideal. These findings seem to be especially applicable for White women; however, they should be further investigated with more diverse and international samples.
Friederich HC, Uher R, Brooks S, Giampietro V, Brammer M, Williams SC, Herzog W, Treasure J, Campbell IC. (2007). I'm not as slim as that girl: neural bases of body shape self-comparison to media images. Neuroimage. 37(2):674-81.
The aim of the present study was to assess the impact of images of slim female fashion models on healthy young women. Brain responses to images of slim-idealized bodies (active condition) and interior designs (control condition) were measured using functional neuroimaging in 18 healthy young women. Instructions encouraged the participants to compare their own body shape/own home with the one in the images. Participants rated the level of anxiety that they experienced while exposed to the images. In the active relative to the control condition, participants activated body shape processing networks, including the lateral fusiform gyrus on both sides, the right inferior parietal lobule, the right lateral prefrontal cortex and the left anterior cingulate. The level of reported anxiety during the exposure to slim bodies correlated with established measures of shape and weight concern and with brain activations in bilateral basal ganglia, left amygdala, bilateral dorsal anterior cingulate, and left inferior lateral prefrontal cortex. Brain networks associated with anxiety induced by self-comparison to slim images may be involved in the genesis of body dissatisfaction and hence with vulnerability to eating disorders.
Madanat HN, Brown RB, Hawks SR. (2007). The impact of body mass index and Western advertising and media on eating style, body image and nutrition transition among Jordanian women. Public Health Nutr. 10(10):1039-46.
OBJECTIVES: To identify the impact of body mass index (BMI) and Western advertising and media on the stage of the nutrition transition among Jordanian women, and to evaluate their impact on eating styles and body image. DESIGN: A randomised cross-sectional survey that included a variety of culturally measured Likert-type scales and body size images. In addition, BMI was calculated based on measured height and weight. SETTING: In the homes of the participants. The data were collected by female interviewers who worked for the Jordan Department of Statistics. SUBJECTS: The sample was based on a random and representative selection of 800 mostly urban Jordanian women. A pre-test sample of 100 women was also used to validate the instruments. RESULTS: Women tended to agree that they ate based on emotional cues. They had high levels of disordered eating attitudes and behaviours and 42.1% were considered restrained eaters. However, these women also had higher than expected body esteem levels and desired a healthy body size. As expected, being obese was associated with a desire to lose weight, being a restrained and emotional eater, and having more disordered eating attitudes and behaviours. Similarly, Western advertising and media were associated with restrained and emotional eating, desired weight loss, and disordered eating attitudes and behaviours. CONCLUSIONS: There is a need to develop health education materials that explain the influence of obesity on health and the negative psychological and physical consequences of restrained and emotional eating, building on the current cultural preferences of healthy body size. Further implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.
Jarry JL, Kossert AL.(2007). Self-esteem threat combined with exposure to thin media images leads to body image compensatory self-enhancement. Body Image. 4(1):39-50.
This study examined the effect of a self-esteem threat combined with exposure to thin images on body image (BI) satisfaction and investment. Female participants (N=94) received a self-esteem threat consisting of false failure feedback or received false success feedback on an intellectual task allegedly highly predictive of academic and professional success. They then viewed media images featuring thin models or products. After viewing thin models, women who had received failure feedback declared themselves more satisfied about their appearance and less invested in it than did women who had received success feedback. These results suggest that exposure to the thin ideal may inspire women experiencing self-esteem threats to use appearance as an alternative source of worth, thus maintaining their global esteem through BI compensatory self-enhancement. Potential long-term implications of this strategy, such as a paradoxical increase in BI investment and the development of eating pathology, are discussed.
2006
Acad Psychiatry. 2006 May-Jun;30(3):257-61.
Body image, media, and eating disorders.
Derenne JL, Beresin EV.
OBJECTIVE: Eating disorders, including obesity, are a major public health problem today. Throughout history, body image has been determined by various factors, including politics and media. Exposure to mass media (television, movies, magazines, Internet) is correlated with obesity and negative body image, which may lead to disordered eating. The authors attempt to explain the historical context of the problem and explore potential avenues for change. METHOD: The authors review changes in ideal female body type throughout history, comment on current attitudes toward shape and weight in both men and women, and outline interventions aimed at increasing healthy habits and fostering self-esteem in youth. RESULTS: Throughout history, the ideal of beauty has been difficult to achieve and has been shaped by social context. Current mass media is ubiquitous and powerful, leading to increased body dissatisfaction among both men and women. CONCLUSION: Parents need to limit children's exposure to media, promote healthy eating and moderate physical activity, and encourage participation in activities that increase mastery and self-esteem. Funding for high-quality, visible advertising campaigns promoting healthy life styles may increase awareness.
Lawrie Z, Sullivan EA, Davies PS, Hill RJ. Media influence on the body image of children and adolescents. Eat Disord. 2006 Oct-Dec;14(5):355-64.
To study the media messages portrayed to children, 925 students, from 9 to up to 14 years of age, completed "The Sociocultural Influences Questionnaire." The media section is the focus of this paper, and the responses from three questions were selected to examine the media's influence to be slimmer, increase weight, or increase muscle size. While the girls and boys exhibited different levels of agreement with each media influence, both genders disagreed that media messages were implying they should gain weight. This is in agreement with the belief that the media perpetuates the ideal of thinness and there is a negative stigma associated with being overweight.
Monro FJ, Huon GF. Media-portrayed idealized images, self-objectification, and eating behavior. Eat Behav. 2006 Nov;7(4):375-83.
This study examined the effects of media-portrayed idealized images on young women's eating behavior. The study compared the effects for high and low self-objectifiers. 72 female university students participated in this experiment. Six magazine advertisements featuring idealized female models were used as the experimental stimuli, and the same six advertisements with the idealized body digitally removed became the control stimuli. Eating behavior was examined using a classic taste test that involved both sweet and savory food. Participants' restraint status was assessed. We found that total food intake after exposure was the same in the body present and absent conditions. There were also no differences between high and low self-objectifiers' total food intake. However, for the total amount of food consumed and for sweet food there were significant group by condition interaction effects. High self-objectifiers ate more food in the body present than the body absent condition. In contrast, low self-objectifiers ate more food in the body absent than in the body present condition. Restraint status was not found to moderate the relationship between exposure to idealized images the amount of food consumed. Our results indicate that exposure to media-portrayed idealized images can lead to changes in eating behavior and highlight the complexity of the association between idealized image exposure and eating behavior. These results are discussed in terms of their implications for the prevention of dieting-related disorders.
Hill AJ.Motivation for eating behaviour in adolescent girls: the body beautiful. Proc Nutr Soc. 2006 Nov;65(4):376-84.
Body dissatisfaction is commonplace for teenage girls and is associated with dieting and unhealthy weight-control behaviours. The idealisation and pursuit of thinness are seen as the main drivers of body dissatisfaction, with the media prominent in setting thin body ideals. Television and consumer magazine production in the UK are extensive, annually releasing 1x10(6) h programming and >3000 magazine titles. Their engagement by adolescent girls is high, and in surveys girls identify thin and revealing body images as influential to the appeal of thinness and their pursuit of dieting. Experimental studies show a short-term impact of these images on body dissatisfaction, especially in teenagers who are already concerned about body image. Magazine images appear more influential than television viewing. For many adolescents selecting thin-image media is purposive, permitting comparison of themselves with the models or celebrities featured. Indeed, the impact of the media needs to be understood within a social context, as engagement is often a highly-social process. Media influence is uneven because of differences in its content and manner of communication, and individual differences in vulnerability to its content. Greater social responsibility on the part of the media and better media literacy by children would be beneficial. For those working in adolescent nutrition it is a reminder that adolescent food choice and intake are subject to many competing, contradictory and non-health-related determinants.
Elgin J, Pritchard M. Gender differences in disordered eating and its correlates. Eat Weight Disord. 2006 Sep;11(3):e96-101.
The goal of this study was to examine gender differences in the prevalence of disordered eating and body dissatisfaction as well as examine gender differences in several risk factors: mass media, self-esteem and perfectionism. Three hundred fifty-three undergraduates completed surveys about their body dissatisfaction, disordered eating habits, exposure to and influence of mass media, self-esteem and perfectionistic tendencies. As expected, women experienced more symptoms of disordered eating as well as body dissatisfaction than did their male counterparts. There were also gender differences in the risk factors. For women, mass media, self-esteem, and perfectionism related to disordered eating behaviors, whereas for men, only perfectionism and mass media related to disordered eating behaviors. For women, mass media and self-esteem related to body image dissatisfaction, whereas for men, mass media and perfectionism related to body image dissatisfaction. The results of the present study indicate that risk factors for disordered eating and body dissatisfaction for men and women may be different, which has implications for understanding the etiology of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating and for possible treatment interventions.
Derenne JL, Beresin EV. Body image, media, and eating disorders. Acad Psychiatry. 2006 May-Jun;30(3):257-61.
Eating disorders, including obesity, are a major public health problem today. Throughout history, body image has been determined by various factors, including politics and media. Exposure to mass media (television, movies, magazines, Internet) is correlated with obesity and negative body image, which may lead to disordered eating. The authors attempt to explain the historical context of the problem and explore potential avenues for change. METHOD: The authors review changes in ideal female body type throughout history, comment on current attitudes toward shape and weight in both men and women, and outline interventions aimed at increasing healthy habits and fostering self-esteem in youth. RESULTS: Throughout history, the ideal of beauty has been difficult to achieve and has been shaped by social context. Current mass media is ubiquitous and powerful, leading to increased body dissatisfaction among both men and women. CONCLUSION: Parents need to limit children's exposure to media, promote healthy eating and moderate physical activity, and encourage participation in activities that increase mastery and self-esteem. Funding for high-quality, visible advertising campaigns promoting healthy life styles may increase awareness.
2005
Field AE, Austin SB, Camargo CA, Taylor CB, Striegel-Moore RH, Loud KJ, Colditz GA. Exposure to the mass media, body shape concerns, and use of supplements to improve weight and shape among male and female adolescents. Pediatrics. 2005 Aug;116(2):e214-20.
OBJECTIVE: To assess the prevalence and correlates of products used to improve weight and shape among male and female adolescents. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted of 6212 girls and 4237 boys who were 12 to 18 years of age and enrolled in the ongoing Growing Up Today Study. The outcome measure was at least weekly use of any of the following products to improve appearance, muscle mass, or strength: protein powder or shakes, creatine, amino acids/hydroxy methylbutyrate (HMB), dehydroepiandrosterone, growth hormone, or anabolic/injectable steroids. RESULTS: Approximately 4.7% of the boys and 1.6% of the girls used protein powder or shakes, creatine, amino acids/HMB, dehydroepiandrosterone, growth hormone, or anabolic/injectable steroids at least weekly to improve appearance or strength. In multivariate models, boys and girls who thought a lot about wanting more defined muscles (boys: odds ratio [OR]: 1.6; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.1-2.2; girls: OR: 2.3; 95% CI: 1.2-3.2) or were trying to gain weight (boys: OR: 3.0; 95% CI: 2.0-4.6; girls: OR: 4.3; 95% CI: 1.6-11.4) were more likely than their peers to use these products. In addition, boys who read men's, fashion, or health/fitness magazines (OR: 2.3; 95% CI: 1.1-4.9) and girls who were trying to look like women in the media (OR: 2.9; 95% CI: 1.4-4.0) were significantly more likely than their peers to use products to improve appearance or strength, but hours per week watching television, watching sports on television, and participation in team sports were not independently associated with using products to improve appearance or muscle mass. CONCLUSIONS: Girls and boys who frequently thought about wanting toned or well-defined muscles were at increased risk for using potentially unhealthful products to enhance their physique. These results suggest that just as girls may resort to unhealthful means to achieve a low body weight, girls and boys may also resort to unhealthful means to achieve other desired physiques.
Becker AE, Gilman SE, Burwell RAChanges in prevalence of overweight and in body image among Fijian women between 1989 and 1998.. Obes Res. 2005 Jan;13(1):110-7.
To investigate changes in prevalence of overweight and obesity and in body image among ethnic Fijian women in Fiji during a period of rapid social change and the relationship between changes in body image and BMI. The study design was a multiwave cohort study of BMI in a traditional Fijian village over a 9.5-year period from 1989 to 1998. Cohorts were identified in 1989 (n=53) and in 1998 (n=50). Selection criteria included Fijian ethnicity, female gender, age of at least 18 years, and residence in a specific coastal Fijian village in 1989 and 1998, respectively. Assessments consisted of measurement of height and weight, collection of demographic data by written survey, and administration of the Nadroga Language Body Image Questionnaire. The prevalence of overweight and obesity was significantly different between the cohorts, increasing from 60% in 1989 to 84% in 1998 (p=0.014). In addition, the age-adjusted mean BMI was significantly higher in 1998 compared with 1989 (p=0.011). Finally, there were significant between-cohort differences in multiple measures of body image, which were mostly independent of BMI. At 84%, the prevalence of overweight and obesity in this community sample of Fijian women is among the highest in the world. The dramatically increased prevalence over the 9.5-year period studied corresponds with rapid social change in Fiji and significant shifts in prevailing traditional attitudes toward body shape.
Muris P, Meesters C, van de Blom W, Mayer B. Biological, psychological, and sociocultural correlates of body change strategies and eating problems in adolescent boys and girls. Eat Behav. 2005 Jan;6(1):11-22.
The present study examines correlates of body change strategies and eating problems in youths. A large sample of adolescents aged 12 to 16 years (N = 307) was asked to complete a set of questionnaires, which measured biological (age, pubertal status, and body mass index [BMI]), psychological (self-esteem, body dissatisfaction, body importance, and body comparison), and sociocultural variables (influence of media, parents, and peers), as well as body change strategies and disturbed eating attitudes and behaviors. Results showed that boys generally try to become more muscular, whereas girls attempt to lose weight. Further, correlational and regression analyses demonstrated that biological, psychological, and sociocultural influences made unique and significant contributions to various body image and body change/eating problems variables. Finally, hierarchical regression analyses yielded theoretically meaningful models for the main body change strategies in boys and girls. In these models, BMI, self-esteem, and sociocultural influences turned out to be significant predictor variables, while body-image-related factors, and in particular body comparison (i.e., the tendency to compare one's body with that of others), partially or fully mediated the influence of some predictor variables.
Winkler C, Rhodes G. Perceptual adaptation affects attractiveness of female bodies. Br J Psychol. 2005 May;96(Pt 2):141-54.
We investigated whether short durations (5 minutes) of exposure to distorted bodies can change subsequent perceptions of attractiveness and normality. Participants rated 110 female bodies, varying in width, on either their attractiveness or normality before and after exposure to either extremely narrow (-50% of original width in Experiments 1 and 2) or extremely wide bodies (+50% of original width in Experiment 1, and +70% of original width in Experiment 2). In both experiments, the most attractive and most normal looking bodies became significantly and substantially narrower after exposure to narrow bodies. The most normal looking body changed significantly after exposure to wide bodies, but the most attractive body did not. These results show that perceptions of body attractiveness can be influenced by experience, but that there is an asymmetry between the effects of exposure to narrow and wide bodies. We consider a possible mechanism for this unexpected asymmetry, as well as possible implications for the effects of media exposure on body-image. The most attractive body shape was consistently narrower than the most normal looking body shape. Substantial changes in what looked normal were accompanied by congruent changes in what looked attractive, suggesting that a normal or average body shape may function as a reference point against which body attractiveness is judged.
Minerva Pediatr. 2005 Dec;57(6):337-58.
Violent video game effects on children and adolescents. A review of the literature.
Gentile DA, Stone W.
Studies of violent video games on children and adolescents were reviewed to: 1) determine the multiple effects; 2) to offer critical observations about common strengths and weaknesses in the literature; 3) to provide a broader perspective to understand the research on the effects of video games. The review includes general theoretical and methodological considerations of media violence, and description of the general aggression model (GAM). The literature was evaluated in relation to the GAM. Published literature, including meta-analyses, are reviewed, as well as relevant unpublished material, such as conference papers and dissertations. Overall, the evidence supports hypotheses that violent video game play is related to aggressive affect, physiological arousal, aggressive cognitions, and aggressive behaviours. The effects of video game play on school performance are also evaluated, and the review concludes with a dimensional approach to video game effects. The dimensional approach evaluates video game effects in terms of amount, content, form, and mechanics, and appears to have many advantages for understanding and predicting the multiple types of effects demonstrated in the literature.
2004
Hawkins N, Richards PS, Granley HM, Stein DM. The impact of exposure to the thin-ideal media image on women. Eat Disord. 2004 Spring;12(1):35-50. Links
The purpose of this study was to experimentally examine the effects of exposure to the thin-ideal body image on women's affect, self-esteem, body satisfaction, eating disorder symptoms, and level of internalization of the thin-ideal. College women (N=145) were randomly exposed to photographs from popular magazines containing either thin-ideal images or neutral images. Exposure to thin-ideal magazine images increased body dissatisfaction, negative mood states, and eating disorder symptoms and decreased self-esteem, although it did not cause more internalization of the thin-ideal. Exposure to thin-ideal media images may contribute to the development of eating disorders by causing body dissatisfaction, negative moods, low self-esteem, and eating disorders symptoms among women.
2003
Andrist LC. Media images, body dissatisfaction, and disordered eating in adolescent women. MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs. 2003 Mar-Apr;28(2):119-23
This article examines the literature related to the media, body image, and diet/weight issues in children and young women. The media holds an awesome power to influence young women, bombarding them with images of abnormally thin models who seem to represent the ideal. When the majority of adolescents inevitably fail to achieve the extremely thin image they crave, body dissatisfaction results, and disordered eating can begin. Emerging research in the pediatric and adolescent literature demonstrates that children as young as 5 are already anxious about their bodies, and want to be thinner. This obsessive interest in body weight is only fueled by a dramatic increase in the number of Internet Web sites devoted to disordered eating. Unfortunately many of the Web sites are "pro-ana" (pro anorexia) and "pro-mia" (pro bulimia); these Web sites encourage young people at risk to begin starving themselves, or to begin binge-purging. As nurses know, each of these scenarios can lead to serious illness, and sometimes to death.
Davison KK, Markey CN, Birch LL. A longitudinal examination of patterns in girls' weight concerns and body dissatisfaction from ages 5 to 9 years.Int J Eat Disord. 2003 Apr;33(3):320-32.
Weight concerns, body dissatisfaction, and weight status were assessed for 182 girls when they were 5, 7, and 9 years old, and their eating attitudes, dietary restraint, and dieting status were assessed when they were 9. Girls tended to maintain their rank in weight concerns and body dissatisfaction across ages 5 to 9 years, and associations among girls' weight concerns, body dissatisfaction, and weight status increased with age. In addition, positive associations were found between changes in girls' weight concerns, body dissatisfaction, and weight status across ages 7 to 9. Girls' who reported high weight concerns or high body dissatisfaction across ages 5 to 7 reported higher dietary restraint, more maladaptive eating attitudes, and a greater likelihood of dieting at age 9, independent of their weight status. Girls' reported weight concerns and body dissatisfaction across middle childhood showed consistency over time, were systematically related to their weight status, and predicted their dietary restraint, eating attitudes, and the likelihood of dieting at age 9.
Utter J, Neumark-Sztainer D, Wall M, Story M. Reading magazine articles about dieting and associated weight control behaviors among adolescents. J Adolesc Health. 2003 Jan;32(1):78-82.
The purpose was to examine the sociodemographic characteristics of adolescents who read magazine articles about dieting/weight loss and the relationship between reading these types of magazine articles and psychosocial well-being and weight control behaviors. Dieting-related magazine exposure was associated with indicators of psychosocial distress and unhealthy dieting; interventions that address media consumption should reach out to all youth regardless of ethnic and social backgrounds
Sands ER, Wardle J. Internalization of ideal body shapes in 9-12-year-old girls.
Int J Eat Disord. 2003 Mar;33(2):193-204.
In Western countries, body dissatisfaction is reported in girls as young as 9 years old. The internalization of the "thin ideal" was predicted to be a critical influence on the development of body dissatisfaction in 356 subjects who were weighed and completed measures of body dissatisfaction, awareness and internalization of the thin ideal, and peer and maternal attitudes and behavior. Exposure to relevant print media was also examined. Body dissatisfaction was associated with a higher body mass index, was not restricted to overweight girls. Internalization mediated the relationship between awareness of the sociocultural standard of appearance and body dissatisfaction. Media exposure and peer and maternal weight-related attitudes and behavior were, in turn, related to awareness, supporting the hypothesized sociocultural processes. Internalization operates as a central component in the development of body dissatisfaction, occurring at a young age in some girls and therefore may be a suitable target for preventive strategies.
2002
Johnson JG, Cohen P, Smailes EM, Kasen S, Brook JS. Television viewing and aggressive behavior during adolescence and adulthood. Science 2002 Mar 29;295(5564):2468-71
Television viewing and aggressive behavior were assessed over a 17-year interval in a community sample of 707 individuals. There was a significant association between the amount of time spent watching television during adolescence and early adulthood and the likelihood of subsequent aggressive acts against others. This association remained significant after previous aggressive behavior, childhood neglect, family income, neighborhood violence, parental education, and psychiatric disorders were controlled statistically.
Earles KA, Alexander R, Johnson M, Liverpool J, McGhee M. Media influences on children and adolescents: violence and sex.
J Natl Med Assoc 2002 Sep;94(9):797-801
The portrayal of violence, sex, and drugs/alcohol in the media has been known to adversely affect the behavior of children and adolescents. There is a strong association between perceptions of media messages and observed behavior, especially with children. Lately, there has been more of a focus in the public health/medical field on media influences of youth and the role of the pediatrician and/or healthcare worker in addressing this area of growing concern. There is a need to explicitly explore the influences of media violence, sex, and drugs/alcohol on youth within the context of the Social Learning Theory. Implications of these influences are discussed, and recommendations for pediatricians and/or health care workers who interact with children and adolescents are described. Pediatricians and health care workers should incorporate media exposure probes into the developmental history of their patients and become knowledgeable about the effects of medial influences on youth.
Durkin SJ, Paxton SJ. Predictors of vulnerability to reduced body image satisfaction and psychological wellbeing in response to exposure to idealized female media images in adolescent girls. J Psychosom Res. 2002 Nov;53(5):995-1005.
Predictors of change in body satisfaction, depressed mood, anxiety and anger, were examined following exposure to idealized female advertising images in Grades 7 and 10 girls. Stable body dissatisfaction, physical appearance comparison tendency, internalization of thin ideal, self-esteem, depression, identity confusion and body mass index (BMI) were assessed. One week later, participants viewed magazine images, before and after which they completed assessments of state body satisfaction, state depression, state anxiety and state anger. Participants were randomly allocated to view either images of idealized females (experimental condition) or fashion accessories (control condition). For both grades, there was a significant decrease in state body satisfaction and a significant increase in state depression attributable to viewing the female images. In Grade 7 girls in the experimental condition, decrease in state body satisfaction was predicted by stable body dissatisfaction and BMI, while significant predictors of decreases in the measures of negative affect included internalization of the thin-ideal and appearance comparison. In Grade 10 girls, reduction in state body satisfaction and increase in state depression was predicted by internalization of the thin-ideal, appearance comparison and stable body dissatisfaction. These findings indicate the importance of individual differences in short-term reaction to viewing idealized media images.
Becker AE, Burwell RA, Gilman SE, Herzog DB, Hamburg P. (2002) Eating behaviors and attitudes following prolonged exposure to television among ethnic Fijian adolescent girls Br J Psychiatry ;180:509-14.
This study examined the impact of prolonged exposure to TV on disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in teens from Fiji. These subjects were chosen because they had previous limited exposure to TV. Fijian teens were tested before and after prolonged television exposure using an eating attitudes test, and interview. A subset of subjects had their responses analyzed for content relating TV exposure to issues of body image. Disordered eating was significantly more prevalent following exposure to TV. Subjects exposed to TV revealed greater interest in weight loss in order to model themselves after the TV characters.
Stice E, Whitenton K. Dev Psychol 2002 Risk factors for body dissatisfaction in adolescent girls: a longitudinal investigation.
Sep;38(5):669-78
Because few prospective studies have examined predictors of body dissatisfaction--an established risk factor for eating disorders--the authors tested whether a set of socio-cultural, biological, interpersonal, and affective factors predicted increases in body dissatisfaction using longitudinal data from adolescent girls (N = 496). Elevated adiposity, perceived pressure to be thin, thin-ideal internalization, and social support deficits predicted increases in body dissatisfaction, but early menarche, weight-related teasing, and depression did not. There was evidence of 2 distinct pathways to body dissatisfaction--1 involving pressure to be thin and 1 involving adiposity. Results support the contention that certain socio-cultural, biological, and interpersonal factors increase the risk for body dissatisfaction, but suggest that other accepted risk factors are not related to this outcome.
Botta RA, Dumlao R. (2002) How do conflict and communication patterns between fathers and daughters contribute to or offset eating disorders?
Health Commun;14(2):199-219.
A study of 210 college age women demonstrated than skilled conflict resolution and open communication between fathers and daughters may help offset eating disorders. However, a lack of these skills and inability to resolve conflicts can lead to increased disordered eating.
Neumark-Sztainer D, Falkner N, Story M, Perry C, Hannan PJ, Mulert S. Weight-teasing among adolescents: correlations with weight status and disordered eating behaviors.Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2002 Jan;26(1):123-31
This study assessed the prevalence of perceived weight-teasing and associations with unhealthy weight-control behaviors and binge eating in a group of 4746 adolescents from St Paul/Minneapolis public schools. There were significant associations between perceived weight-teasing and weight status; both overweight and underweight youth reported higher levels of teasing than average weight youth. Very overweight youth (body mass index (BMI) > or = 95th percentile) were most likely to be teased about their weight; 63% of very overweight girls, and 58% of very overweight boys reported being teased by their peers, while weight-teasing by family members was reported by 47% of these girls and 34% of these boys. Youth who were teased about their weight, particularly overweight girls, reported that it bothered them. Perceived weight-teasing was significantly associated with disordered eating behaviors among overweight and non-overweight girls and boys. For example, among overweight youth, 29% of girls and 18% of boys who experienced frequent weight-teasing reported binge-eating as compared to 16% of girls and 7% of boys who were not teased. Many adolescents, in particular those who are overweight, report being teased about their weight and being bothered by the teasing. Weight-teasing is associated with disordered eating behaviors that may place overweight youth at increased risk for weight gain. Educational interventions and policies are needed to curtail weight-related mistreatment among youth.
Johnson JG, Cohen P, Kasen S, Brook JS. (2002) Eating disorders during adolescence and the risk for physical and mental disorders during early adulthood Arch Gen Psychiatry Jun;59(6):545-52.
A sample of 717 teens and their mothers were studied in NY via interview. The teens average age was 13.8 years. The teens with eating disorders were at risk for anxiety disorders, heart problems, chronic pain, chronic fatigue, infectious diseases, limited activities due to poor health, insomnia, neurological problems and attempts at suicide. Problems with eating and weight during adolescence predicted poor health outcomes during adulthood.
Packard P, Krogstrand KS. (2002) Half of rural girls aged 8 to 17 years report weight concerns and dietary changes, with both more prevalent with increased age J Am Diet Assoc 102(5):672-7.
A sample of rural white women and girls (N=333) aged 8 to 17 years, completed a weight concerns and dieting behavior questionnaire, a body image assessment, and a self-rating of sexual maturity, and 230 subjects completed 3-day diet diaries. More than half (52%) of the subjects reported 1 or more weight concerns and dieting behaviors. This pattern increased with age. Friends dieting positively influenced scores for 8- to 14-year olds, and a dieting family member meant higher scores for all ages studied. Although most wanted to be smaller, there was little body image dissatisfaction. Girls (aged 11 to 17 years) who dieted had greater body dissatisfaction and significantly lower but adequate diets compared to those who did not diet. Inverse relationships were found for the 11- to 14-year olds between diet adequacy and body image dissatisfaction, weight concerns, and dieting behaviors. This age appears important because actual weight and dieting concerns may begin earlier, and by age 11 years, negatively affect diet quality.
Steinhausen HC. (2002) The outcome of anorexia nervosa in the 20th century Am J of Psychiatry Aug;159(8):1284-93 .
Of 5,590 subjects with anorexia nervosa studied since 1950, mortality rates were found to be high. Of the survivors, less than half recovered, but 33% improved. Twenty percent remained chronically ill. Other psychiatric issues were commonly present in addition to the illness. Indicators of unfavorable outcomes included vomiting, bulimia, and purgative abuse, chronicity of illness, and obsessive-compulsive personality symptoms
Troop NA, Bifulco A. (2002) Childhood social arena and cognitive sets in eating disorders Br J Clin Psychol 41(Pt 2):205-11.
A sample of 43 women with a history of eating disorders and 20 women with no such history were interviewed about their feelings and experiences of loneliness, shyness and inferiority in childhood and adolescence. Women with a history of anorexia nervosa of the binge/purge subtype reported higher levels of loneliness, shyness and feelings of inferiority in adolescence than did women with no history of an eating disorder, and women with a history of bulimia nervosa reported higher levels of shyness. However, this was not true for earlier childhood where such feelings did not differ significantly between groups. This difference could not be accounted for by current depressive disorder, recovery from the eating disorder or level of victimization in adolescence.
2001
Field AE, Camargo CA, Taylor CB, Berkey CS, Roberts SB, Colditz GA. Peer, parent, and media influences on the development of weight concerns and frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls and boys. Pediatrics. 2001 Jan;107(1):54-60.
OBJECTIVE: To assess prospectively the influence of peers, parents, and the media on the development of weight concerns and frequent dieting. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. SETTING: Questionnaires mailed annually to participants throughout the United States. PARTICIPANTS: One-year follow-up of 6770 girls and 5287 boys who completed questionnaires in 1996 and 1997 and were between 9 and 14 years of age in 1996. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Onset of high levels of concern with weight and dieting frequently to control weight. RESULTS: During 1 year of follow-up, 6% of girls and 2% of boys became highly concerned with weight and 2% of girls and 1% of boys became constant dieters. Peer influence was negligible. Independent of age and body mass index, both girls (odds ratio [OR]): 1.9; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.1-3.1) and boys (OR: 2.7; 95% CI: 1.1-6. 4) who were making a lot of effort to look like same-sex figures in the media were more likely than their peers to become very concerned with their weight. Moreover, both girls (OR: 2.3; 95% CI: 1.1-5.0) and boys (OR: 2.6; 95% CI: 1.1-6.0) who reported that their thinness/lack of fat was important to their father were more likely than their peers to become constant dieters. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that parents and the media influence the development of weight concerns and weight control practices among preadolescents and adolescents. However, there are gender differences in the relative importance of these influences.
Villani S. Impact of media on children and adolescents: a 10-year review of the research. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2001 Apr;40(4):392-401
Media categories researched with computer technology included television and movies, rock music and music videos, advertising, video games, and computers and the Internet. Research prior to 1990 documented that children learn behaviors and have their value systems shaped by media. Media research since has focused on content and viewing patterns. The primary effects of media exposure are increased violent and aggressive behavior, increased high-risk behaviors, including alcohol and tobacco use, and accelerated onset of sexual activity. The newer forms of media have not been adequately studied, but concern is warranted through the logical extension of earlier research on other media forms and the amount of time the average child spends with increasingly sophisticated media.
Anderson DR, Huston AC, Schmitt KL, Linebarger DL, Wright JC. Early childhood television viewing and adolescent behavior: the recontact study. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev 2001;66(1):I-VIII, 1-147
A follow-up of 570 adolescents who had been studied as preschoolers in one of two separate investigations of television use was completed. The primary goal of the study was to determine the long-term relations between preschool television viewing and adolescent achievement, behavior, and attitudes. Using a telephone interview and high school transcripts, we assessed adolescent media use; grades in English, science, and math; leisure reading; creativity; aggression; participation in extracurricular activities; use of alcohol and cigarettes; and self-image. In each domain, we tested theories emphasizing the causal role of television content (e.g., social learning, information processing) as contrasted with those theories positing effects of television as a medium, irrespective of content (e.g., time displacement, pacing, interference with language). The results provided much stronger support for content-based hypotheses than for theories emphasizing television as a medium; moreover, the patterns differed for boys and girls. Viewing educational programs as preschoolers was associated with higher grades, reading more books, placing more value on achievement, greater creativity, and less aggression. These associations were more consistent for boys than for girls. By contrast, the girls who were more frequent preschool viewers of violent programs had lower grades than those who were infrequent viewers. These associations held true after taking into account family background, other categories of preschool viewing, and adolescent media use. One hypothesis accounting for the sex differences is that early experiences, such as television viewing, have greater effects when they counteract normative developmental trends and predominant sex-typed socialization influences than when they reinforce them. Adolescents in the study used both television and print media to support ongoing interests. Television content (e.g., entertainment, sports, or world events) predicted extracurricular activities, role models, and body image. The only evidence for possible effects of television as a medium was the positive relation of total viewing to obesity for girls. The medium of television is not homogeneous or monolithic, and content viewed is more important than raw amount. The medium is not the message: The message is.
Robinson TN, Wilde ML, Navracruz LC, Haydel KF, Varady A. Effects of reducing children's television and video game use on aggressive behavior: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2001 Jan;155(1):17-23
The relationship between exposure to aggression in the media and children's aggressive behavior is well documented. However, few potential solutions have been evaluated. Two sociodemographically and scholastically matched public elementary schools in San Jose, CA were studied. Third- and fourth-grade students (mean age, 8.9 years) and their parents or guardians participated. Children in one elementary school received an 18-lesson, 6-month classroom curriculum to reduce television, videotape, and video game use. In September (preintervention) and April (postintervention) of a single school year, children rated their peers' aggressive behavior and reported their perceptions of the world as a mean and scary place. A 60% random sample of children were observed for physical and verbal aggression on the playground. Parents were interviewed by telephone and reported aggressive and delinquent behaviors on the child behavior checklist. The primary outcome measure was peer ratings of aggressive behavior. Compared with controls, children in the intervention group had statistically significant decreases in peer ratings of aggression and observed verbal aggression. Differences in observed physical aggression, parent reports of aggressive behavior, and perceptions of a mean and scary world were not statistically significant but favored the intervention group. An intervention to reduce television, videotape, and video game use decreases aggressive behavior in elementary schoolchildren. These findings support the causal influences of these media on aggression and the potential benefits of reducing children's media use.
Anderson CA, Bushman BJ. 2001Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: a meta-analytic review of the scientific literature. Psychol Sci Sep;12(5):353-9
Research on exposure to television and movie violence suggests that playing violent video games will increase aggressive behavior. A meta-analytic review of the video-game research literature reveals that violent video games increase aggressive behavior in children and young adults. Experimental and non-experimental studies with males and females in laboratory and field settings support this conclusion. Analyses also reveal that exposure to violent video games increases physiological arousal and aggression-related thoughts and feelings. Playing violent video games also decreases pro-social behavior.
Dunkley TL, Wertheim EH, Paxton SJ. Examination of a model of multiple sociocultural influences on adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction and dietary restraint.Adolescence 2001 Summer;36(142):265-79
This study examined the perceived role of three types of socio-cultural agents (peers, parents, and media) in influencing body dissatisfaction and dietary restraint in adolescent girls. Participants were 577 grade 10 girls from six schools who completed questionnaires in class and had height and weight measured. While current body size strongly predicted ideal body size and body dissatisfaction, perceived influence of multiple socio-cultural agents regarding thinness also had a direct relationship with body ideal and dissatisfaction. Dietary restraint was predicted directly from body dissatisfaction and socio-cultural influences. Peers, parents, and media varied in their perceived influence. The findings support the idea that those girls who show the most body dissatisfaction and dietary restraint live in a subculture supporting a thin ideal and encouraging dieting.
McFarlane T, McCabe RE, Jarry J, Olmsted MP, Polivy J. Weight-related and shape-related self-evaluation in eating-disordered and non-eating-disordered women. Int J Eat Disord 2001 Apr;29(3):328-35
Weight- and shape-related self-evaluation refers to the process whereby an individual determines her self-worth based on an evaluation of her body weight and shape. The purpose of this study was to further our understanding of weight-related self-evaluation in eating-disordered women. Eating-disordered patients, restrained eaters, and unrestrained eaters completed a questionnaire that examined dimensions of weight-related self-evaluation. The results revealed that weight-related self-evaluation is a feature shared, to some extent, by both eating-disordered patients and restrained eaters. However, eating-disordered patients extend weight-related self-evaluation to include more domains of self-esteem than did restrained eaters.
Koskelainen M, Sourander A, Helenius H.( 2001) Dieting and weight concerns among Finnish adolescents Nord J Psychiatry;55(6):427-31 .
This study examined factors associated with dieting and weight concerns among adolescents via survey of 1458 7th and 9th graders in two cities in Finland. According to the results, dieting and weight concerns were extremely common among Finnish adolescents. For all aspects of weight control and dieting concerns, the rates of occurrence were greater among girls. A high level of dieting concerns was associated with female gender, body mass, emotional, conduct, and hyperactivity symptoms, and alcohol use.
2000
Hanley AJ, Harris SB, Gittelsohn J, Wolever TM, Saksvig B, Zinman B. Overweight among children and adolescents in a Native Canadian community: prevalence and associated factors.
Am J Clin Nutr 2000 Mar;71(3):693-700
The prevalence of pediatric obesity in North America is increasing. Native American children are at especially high risk. The objective of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of pediatric overweight and associated behavioral factors in a Native Canadian community with high rates of adult obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Height and weight were measured in 445 children and adolescents aged 2-19 y. Fitness level, television viewing, body image concepts, and dietary intake were assessed in 242 subjects aged 10-19 y. Overweight was defined as a body mass index > or =85th percentile value for age- and sex-specific reference data from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey We examined factors associated with overweight, with adjustment for age and sex. The overall prevalence of overweight in subjects aged 2-19 y was significantly higher than reference. In the subset aged 10-19 y, 5 or more hours of television viewing per day was associated with a significantly higher risk of overweight than was2 hours a day or less. Subjects in the third and fourth quartiles of fitness had a substantially lower risk of overweight than did those in the first quartile. Fiber consumption on the previous day was associated with a decreased risk of overweight. Pediatric overweight is a harbinger of future diabetes risk and indicates a need for programs targeting primary prevention of obesity in children and adolescents.
Strasburger VC, Donnerstein E. Children, adolescents, and the media in the 21st century. Adolesc Med 2000 Feb;11(1):51-68
American children and adolescents spend an average of 3-5 hours per day with a variety of media, including television, radio, videos, videogames, and the Internet. Considerable research exists to document concerns about media violence, the impact of media on teen sexual attitudes and behavior, the relationship between alcohol and cigarette advertising and adolescent drug use, and the impact of R-rated films on attitudes about sexual violence. Very little research exists concerning adolescents' use of the Internet and the potential behavioral impact, but many parents and professionals are concerned. Solutions include: better programming, stricter regulation by parents, media education at home and in schools, and greater advocacy on the part of health professionals.
Vander Wal JS, Thelen MH. Eating and body image concerns among obese and average-weight children.Addict Behav 2000 Sep-Oct;25(5):775-8
Research compared obese and average-weight children with regard to concerns about being or becoming overweight, history of dieting, concerns about the effects of eating food, and perceived discrepancy between real and ideal body image. The subjects included 526 obese and average-weight elementary-age school children to whom questionnaires were administered. Gender (male/female), obesity status (obese/average-weight), and grade level (lower elementary/upper elementary) were considered. Obese children were significantly more likely to engage in dieting behaviors, to express concern about their weight, to restrain their eating, and to exhibit more dissatisfaction with their body image than average-weight children. Girls were more likely to exhibit these behaviors than were boys. These findings suggest the importance of studying the emergence of disordered eating habits in childhood.
Borzekowski DL, Robinson TN, Killen JD. Does the camera add 10 pounds? Media use, perceived importance of appearance, and weight concerns among teenage girls. J Adolesc Health 2000 Jan;26(1):36-41
The relationship between use of electronic media and perceived importance of appearance and weight concerns among adolescent girls was studied in 837 ninth-grade girls attending public high school in San Jose, California. Physical measures and self-report surveys were obtained from the sample that was 36% Latino, 24% White, 22% Asian, 8% Black, and 10% other. Analyses were performed with ethnicity, body mass index (BMI), perceived importance of appearance, weight concerns, and media use (based on self-reported average weekly use of television, videotapes, video and computer games, and music videos). Total media use was not significantly related to perceived importance of appearance or weight concerns. When media use was separated into distinct media genres, only hours of watching music videos was related to perceived importance of appearance and weight concerns. After controlling for BMI and ethnicity, no media use variables were significantly associated with either perceived importance of appearance or weight concerns.
Anderson CA, Dill KE.J Video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the laboratory and in life. Pers Soc Psychol 2000 Apr;78(4):772-90
Two studies examined violent video game effects on aggression-related variables. Study 1 found that real-life violent video game play was positively related to aggressive behavior and delinquency. The relation was stronger for individuals who are characteristically aggressive and for men. Academic achievement was negatively related to overall amount of time spent playing video games. In Study 2, laboratory exposure to a graphically violent video game increased aggressive thoughts and behavior. In both studies, men had a more hostile view of the world than did women. The results from both studies are consistent with the General Affective Aggression Model, which predicts that exposure to violent video games will increase aggressive behavior in both the short term (e.g., laboratory aggression) and the long term (e.g., delinquency).
Byely L, Archibald AB, Graber J, Brooks-Gunn J. (2000) A prospective study of familial and social influences on girls' body image and dieting Int J Eat Disord ;28(2):155-64.
A study of 77 early teens were studied to examine the emergence of concerns with the body in relation to the girl's perceptions of family relationships, maternal dieting and body image, and family/peer pressures to diet. The teens were studied at two points in time, one year apart. The girls' perceptions of family relations and the mothers' perceptions of the daughters weight at the first study period, was predictive of the girls' dieting behavior at the second study period. The girls' previous body image and dieting behaviors significantly predicted more body dissatisfaction 1 year later.
Gardner RM, Stark K, Friedman BN, Jackson NA. Predictors of eating disorder scores in children ages 6 through 14: a longitudinal study.J Psychosom Res 2000 Sep;49(3):199-205
The objective of this study was to identify variables that predict higher eating disorder scores in non-clinical boys and girls ages 6 through 14. Two hundred sixteen children participated and were tested annually for 3 years. A TV-video procedure was used to measure the accuracy of body size judgments. Variables examined included demographic, familial, sociocultural, social, esteem, and clinical variables. Predictors of higher eating disorder scores for both sexes included height and weight, children's perceptions of parental concerns about their body size, low body esteem, and depression. For girls only, a larger perceived body size and smaller idealized body size were also predictors. Teasing was a predictor for boys only. An analysis of longitudinal changes suggests that low body esteem becomes a significant factor around age 9, depression emerges as a predictor at age 10, and body size judgments in perceived and ideal sizes at ages 11 and 12. Changes over 2 years in individuals' weight and height, teasing, body dissatisfaction, and eating disorder scores were also found to predict higher eating disorder scores.
Neumark-Sztainer D, Hannan PJ. Weight-related behaviors among adolescent girls and boys: results from a national survey. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2000 Jun;154(6):569-77
A sample of 6728 adolescents in grades 5 to 12 were surveyed regarding dieting and disordered eating (binge-purge cycling). Approximately 24% of the population was overweight. Almost half of the girls (45%) reported that they had at some point been on a diet, compared with 20% of the boys. Disordered eating was reported by 13% of the girls and 7% of the boys. Strong correlates of these behaviors included overweight status, low self-esteem, depression, suicidal ideation, and substance use. Almost half of the adolescents (38%-53%) reported that a health care provider had at some point discussed nutrition or weight with them. Discussions on eating disorders were reported by lower percentages of girls (24%) and boys (15%).
Byely L, Archibald AB, Graber J, Brooks-Gunn J. A prospective study of familial and social influences on girls' body image and dieting. Int J Eat Disord 2000 Sep;28(2):155-64
This study examined the emergence of body image concerns and dieting behaviors in early adolescence as a function of girls' perceptions of family relationships, maternal modeling of dieting behaviors and body image concerns, and familial and peer pressures to diet. Self-report measures were obtained from 77 girls (mean age = 12.3 years) and their mothers and were repeated 1 year later. Girls' perceptions of family relations and mothers' perceptions of daughters' weight at Time 1 significantly predicted girls' dieting behavior 1 year later, over and above Time 1 dieting and body image. Only girls' previous body image and dieting behaviors significantly predicted more body dissatisfaction 1 year later. Girls' body image was found to mediate the relationship between family relations and dieting at Time 1 assessment, but not over time.
Davison KK, Markey CN, Birch LL. (2000) Etiology of body dissatisfaction and weight concerns among 5-year-old girls Appetite ;35(2):143-51.
For girls and parents, higher weight status was associated with greater body dissatisfaction, which in turn was associated with higher weight concerns. No direct relationship was found between girls' weight status and girls' weight concerns. Girls' body dissatisfaction and mothers' weight concerns, however, were associated with higher weight concerns among girls. In conclusion, relationships among weight status, body dissatisfaction, and weight concerns for 5-year-old girls parallel those reported among adults. In addition, results suggest that the etiology of weight concerns in young girls may be linked to girls' subjective evaluations of their weight status (body dissatisfaction) in combination with weight concerns expressed by their mothers.
Schur EA, Sanders M, Steiner H. Body dissatisfaction and dieting in young children Int J Eat Disord 2000 Jan;27(1):74-82.
Sixty-two third through sixth-grade boys and girls completed interviews and questionnaires regarding eating behavior, attitudes toward dieting, and body dissatisfaction. Fifty percent of the children wanted to weigh less and 16% reported attempting weight loss. Children were well informed about dieting and were most likely to believe that dieting meant changing food choices and exercising as opposed to restricting intake. Their primary source of information was the family. Seventy-seven percent of children mentioned hearing about dieting from a family member, usually a parent.
Prior to 2000
Charren P, Gelber A, Arnold M. Media, children, and violence: a public policy perspective.Pediatrics 1994 Oct;94(4 Pt 2):631-7
Pediatrician advocacy concerning the impact of television violence on children should be clearly grounded in the holistic concern of pediatricians with children's health and well-being. Pediatricians should not promote legislative or regulatory efforts to reduce children's exposure to television violence by proscribing certain kinds of program content. Instead, priority should be given to strategies that improve the content and quality of television programming viewed by children and that enhance the viewing choices made by children and their families. Such strategies include providing parent education and pressing for strong implementation of the Children's Television Act. Pediatricians should dedicate their efforts to increasing the awareness of broadcasters and the general public, acting as educators and persuaders. In order to advocate and educate effectively, pediatricians need to amplify their own knowledge and understanding of television-related issues and their significance. Finally, because children's exposure to television violence is but one part of a larger social context, pediatricians concerned with this issue should devote significant attention to related problems that diminish the health and well-being of children
Field AE, Camargo CA, Taylor CB, Berkey CS, Colditz GA.
Relation of peer and media influences to the development of purging behaviors among preadolescent and adolescent girls. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1999 Nov;153(11):1184-9.
OBJECTIVE: To assess prospectively the relation of peer and media influences on the risk of development of purging behaviors. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. SETTING: One year follow-up of 6982 girls aged 9 to 14 years in 1996 who completed questionnaires in 1996 and 1997 and reported in 1996 that they did not use vomiting or laxatives to control weight. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Self-report of using vomiting or laxatives at least monthly to control weight. RESULTS: During 1 year of follow-up, 74 girls began using vomiting or laxatives at least monthly to control weight. Tanner stage of pubic hair development was predictive of beginning to purge (odds ratio [OR] = 1.8; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.3-2.4). Independent of age and Tanner stage of pubic hair development, importance of thinness to peers (OR = 2.3; 95% CI, 1.8-3.0) and trying to look like females on television, in movies, or in magazines (OR= 1.9; 95% CI, 1.6-2.3) were predictive of beginning to purge at least monthly. Regardless of the covariates included in the logistic regression model, the risk of beginning to purge increased approximately 30% to 40% per 1-category increase in frequency of trying to look like females on television, in movies, or in magazines. CONCLUSIONS: Both peers and popular culture, independent of each other, exert influence on girls' weight control beliefs and behaviors. Therefore, to make eating disorder prevention programs more effective, efforts should be made to persuade the television, movie, and magazine industries to employ more models and actresses whose weight could be described as healthy, not underweight.
Field AE, Cheung L, Wolf AM, Herzog DB, Gortmaker SL, Colditz GA.
Exposure to the mass media and weight concerns among girls. Pediatrics. 1999 Mar;103(3):E36.
To assess the influence of the media on girls' weight concerns, weight control/loss behaviors, and perceptions of body weight and shape a Cross-sectional survey was completed in school. The questionnaire assessed body weight, dissatisfaction with body weight and shape, exposure to fashion magazines, the impact of media on feelings about weight and shape, attributes of and preferences for body types, and whether subjects had gone on a diet to lose weight or initiated exercise because of an article in a magazine. SETTING: Mandatory physical education class in public elementary, junior high, and high schools. PARTICIPANTS: Subjects included 548 5th- through 12th-grade girls in a working-class suburb in the northeastern United States. OUTCOME MEASURES: Perceived influence of fashion magazines on body dissatisfaction, idea of the perfect body shape, dieting to lose weight, and initiating an exercise program. RESULTS: Pictures in magazines had a strong impact on girls' perceptions of their weight and shape. Of the girls, 69% reported that magazine pictures influence their idea of the perfect body shape, and 47% reported wanting to lose weight because of magazine pictures. There was a positive linear association between the frequency of reading women's magazines and the prevalence of having dieted to lose weight because of a magazine article, initiating an exercise program because of a magazine article, wanting to lose weight because of pictures in magazines, and feeling that pictures in magazines influence their idea of the perfect body shape. In multivariate logistic regression models controlling for weight status (overweight vs not overweight), school level (elementary vs junior high school, elementary vs high school), and race/ethnic group, girls who were frequent readers of fashion magazines were two to three times more likely than infrequent readers to diet to lose weight because of a magazine article (odds ratio [OR] = 2.11, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.19-3.75); to exercise to lose weight because of a magazine article (OR = 3.02, 95% CI: 1.77-5.17); and to feel that magazines influence what they believe is the ideal body shape (OR = 2.81; 95% CI: 1.72-4.58). In addition, moderate-frequency readers were more likely than infrequent readers of fashion magazines to report exercising because of a magazine article (OR = 1.94; 95% CI: 1.14-3.30) and feeling that magazines influence what they believe is the ideal body shape (OR = 2.03; 95% CI: 1.30-3.15). DISCUSSION: The majority of the preadolescent and adolescent girls in this school-based study were unhappy with their body weight and shape. This discontentment was strongly related to the frequency of reading fashion magazines. Although previous studies have concluded that the print media promotes an unrealistically thin body ideal, which in turn is at least partially responsible for promoting eating disorders, the present study is the first that we are aware of to assess directly the impact of the print media on the weight and body shape beliefs of young girls. We observed that the frequency of reading fashion magazines was positively associated with the prevalence of having dieted to lose weight, having gone on a diet because of a magazine article, exercising to lose weight or improve body shape, and deciding to exercise because of a magazine article. Given the substantial health risk associated with overweight and the fact that during the past 2 decades the prevalence of overweight has increased sharply among children and adolescents, it is not prudent to suggest that overweight girls should accept their body shape and not be encouraged to lose weight. However, aspiring to look like underweight models may have deleterious psychological consequences. The results suggest that the print media aimed at young girls could serve a public health role by refraining from relying on models who are severely underweight and printing more articles on the benefits of physical
Friedlander BZ. Community violence, children's development, and mass media: in pursuit of new insights, new goals, and new strategies.
Psychiatry 1993 Feb;56(1):66-81
Community violence that victimizes children is an unmitigated evil that is exacerbated by vast economic and social forces that leave people in central cities and the rural countryside adrift on seas of hopelessness, group disintegration, and alienation. The contemporary drug scene and the easy availability of guns greatly intensify violence on a local scale, while crimes of violence, especially with guns, appear to be level or declining in the nation as a whole. Claims that the persistently high levels of violence in mass media, mostly television, are largely responsible for violence in society represent narrow views of very large issues. These narrow views overlook essential elements of both phenomena--violence and media. Direct models of interpersonal violence in families and in the community probably give rise to more violent behavior than indirect models in media. Disinhibitory and provocative aspects of media probably do as much or more to trigger violent behavior than violent narratives and violent actions. Comprehensive meta-analysis indicates that pro-social messages on television can have greater effects on behavior than antisocial messages. These data support the contention that mass media can play a strong and positive role in alleviating some of the distress of victims of community violence, and in redirecting the behavior of some of its perpetrators so as to protect the children.
Huesmann LR, Eron LD, Klein R, Brice P, Fischer P. Mitigating the imitation of aggressive behaviors by changing children's attitudes about media violence.
J Pers Soc Psychol 1983 May;44(5):899-910
A sample of 169 first- and third-grade children, selected because of their high exposure to television violence, was randomly divided into an experimental and a control group. Over the course of 2 years, the experimental subjects were exposed to two treatments designed to reduce the likelihood of their imitating the aggressive behaviors they observed on TV. The control group received comparable neutral treatments. By the end of the second year, the experimental subjects were rated as significantly less aggressive by their peers, and the relation between violence viewing and aggressiveness was diminished in the experimental group.
Liebert RM.J Effects of television on children and adolescents.
Dev Behav Pediatr 1986 Feb;7(1):43-8
The average child born today will, by age 15, have spent more time watching television than going to school. Research has shown that heavy doses of TV violence viewing are associated with the development of aggressive attitudes and behavior. TV viewing also appears to cultivate stereotypic views of gender roles and race. Finally, television commercials often capitalize on children's naivete, and also can foster and reinforce overly materialistic attitudes. All of these adverse effects can be minimized if parents restrict the amount of overall viewing, encourage some programs and discourage others, and talk to children frequently about the meaning of what they see on television.
Pinhas L, Toner BB, Ali A, Garfinkel PE, Stuckless N. The effects of the ideal of female beauty on mood and body satisfaction. Int J Eat Disord. 1999 Mar;25(2):223-6.
OBJECTIVE: The present study examined changes in women's mood states resulting from their viewing pictures in fashion magazines of models who represent a thin ideal. METHOD: Female university students completed the Profile of Mood States (POMS), the Body Parts Satisfaction Scale (BPSS), and the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI). They were then exposed to 20 slides; the experimental group (N = 51) viewed images of female fashion models and a control group (N = 67) viewed slides containing no human figures. All subjects then completed the POMS and the BPSS again. RESULTS: Women were more depressed (R2 = 0.745, p < .05) and more angry (R2 = 0.73, p < .01) following exposure to slides of female fashion models. DISCUSSION: Viewing images of female fashion models had an immediate negative effect on women's mood. This study, therefore, supports the hypothesis that media images do play a role in disordered eating.
Schooler C, Flora Pervasive media violence. JA.Annu Rev Public Health 1996;17:275-98
In this review, we focus our discussion on studies examining effects on children and young adults. We believe that the current epidemic of youth violence in the United States justifies a focus on this vulnerable segment of society. We consider media effects on individual children's behaviors, such as imitating aggressive acts. In addition, we examine how the media influence young people's perceptions of norms regarding interpersonal relationships. Next, we assess mass media effects on societal beliefs, or what children and adolescents think the "real world" is like. We suggest these media influences are cumulative and mutually reinforcing, and discuss the implications of repeated exposure to prominent and prevalent violent media messages. Finally, we catalog multiple intervention possibilities ranging from education to regulation. From a public health perspective, therefore, we evaluate the effects that pervasive media messages depicting violence have on young people and present multiple strategies to promote more healthful outcomes.
Tiggemann M, Pickering AS. Role of television in adolescent women's body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness. Int J Eat Disord 1996 Sep;20(2):199-203
Many authors have implicated the media's promotion of an unrealistically thin ideal for women as a major causal factor in the current high levels of body dissatisfaction and increasing incidence of eating disorders. The present study aimed to investigate the relationship between exposure to one medium, television, and body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness. Questionnaires were administered to 94 adolescent women who reported how much and what television they had watched in the previous week. Body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness were also assessed. Amount of television watched did not correlate with either body dissatisfaction or drive for thinness, but category of program did. Specifically, amount of time spent watching soaps, movies, and (negatively) sport predicted body dissatisfaction, and the watching of music videos predicted drive for thinness. The results are consistent with sociocultural explanations for body dissatisfaction and for the emergence of eating disorders in young women.
Verri AP, Verticale MS, Vallero E, Bellone S, Nespoli L. Minerva [Television and eating disorders. Study of adolescent eating behavior] Pediatr 1997 Jun;49(6):235-43
The media, mainly TV, play a significant social and cultural role and may affect the prevalence and incidence of eating disorders such as bulimia and anorexia nervosa. Their influence acts mainly by favoring a tall and thin body as the only fashionable for female adolescents: your social success depends primarily and totally by your physical appearance and you can, (and must), shape your body as you like better. Our research aims to analyze the attitude of adolescent people toward the TV and to investigate: 1) time spent watching TV programs; 2) the influence of TV on the personal choices of goods to buy; 3) the ideal body images; 4) choice of TV programs. Sixty-seven healthy adolescents (36 F-31 M) were included in our study as controls together with 24 female adolescents with eating disorders. Our results show a psychological dependence of eating disordered adolescents on the TV (longer period of time spent watching TV programs, buying attitudes more influenced by TV advertising). The thin and tall body image is preferred by the eating disordered girls as well as by the controls; however the body appearance and proportions have a predominant and utmost importance only for the eating disorder females. The masculine subjects instead have a preference for a female and masculine opulent body appearance. To prevent the observed increase in prevalence and incidence of eating disorders among adolescents, it is appropriate to control the messages, myths and false hood propagated by media, TV in particular.
Willis E, Strasburger VC. Media violence. Pediatr Clin North Am 1998 Apr;45(2):319-31
American media are the most violent in the world, and American society is now paying a high price in terms of real life violence. Research has confirmed that mass media violence contributes to aggressive behavior, fear, and desensitization of violence. Television, movies, music videos, computer/video games are pervasive media and represent important influences on children and adolescents. Portraying rewards and punishments and showing the consequences of violence are probably the two most essential contextual factors for viewers as they interpret the meaning of what they are viewing on television. Public health efforts have emphasized public education, media literacy campaign for children and parents, and an increased use of technology to prevent access to certain harmful medial materials.
Wiegman O, Kuttschreuter M, Baarda B. A longitudinal study of the effects of television viewing on aggressive and prosocial behaviours. Br J Soc Psychol 1992 Jun;31 ( Pt 2):147-64
A longitudinal study investigated the extent to which children's exposure to aggressive and pro-social television models in drama programs influences their aggressive and pro-social behavior. In The Netherlands we did not find significant positive correlations between pro-social behavior and the viewing of pro-social behavior on television. Positive correlations were found, however, between aggression and television violence viewing. This relationship disappeared almost completely when corrections for the starting level of aggression and intelligence were applied. The hypothesis, formulated on the basis of social learning theory, that television violence viewing leads to aggressive behavior could not be supported. Our findings are further discussed and compared with the results found in the other countries participating in the international study.
Wiegman O, van Schie EG. Video game playing and its relations with aggressive and prosocial behaviour. Br J Soc Psychol 1998 Sep;37 ( Pt 3):367-78
In this study of 278 children from the seventh and eighth grade of five elementary schools in Enschede, The Netherlands, the relationship between the amount of time children spent on playing video games and aggressive as well as prosocial behaviour was investigated. In addition, the relationship between the preference for aggressive video games and aggressive and prosocial behaviour was studied. No significant relationship was found between video game use in general and aggressive behaviour, but a significant negative relationship with prosocial behaviour was supported. However, separate analyses for boys and girls did not reveal this relationship. More consistent results were found for the preference for aggressive video games: children, especially boys, who preferred aggressive video games were more aggressive and showed less prosocial behaviour than those with a low preference for these games. Further analyses showed that children who preferred playing aggressive video games tended to be less intelligent.
Childress AC, Brewerton TD, Hodges EL, Jarrell MP. The Kids' Eating Disorders Survey (KEDS): a study of middle school students. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1993 Jul;32(4):843-50.
Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are known to occur in children although prevalence studies are lacking. METHOD: Using a newly developed self-report instrument, the Kids' Eating Disorders Survey (KEDS), 3,175 students (1,610 females, 1,565 males) enrolled in grades 5 to 8 were surveyed. More than 40% of respondents reported feeling fat and/or the wish to lose weight. These frequencies of weight control behaviors were reported, many of which were significantly greater in girls than boys (*p < 0.05, chi-square): dieting (31.4%*), fasting (8.7%*), diet pill use (2.4%*), vomiting (4.8%), diuretic use (1.5%). The effects of age, grade, weight, and race on responses are reviewed. Findings demonstrate that development of prevention programs aimed at recognizing problem eating behavior in children is indicated.
Cooper PJ, Goodyer I. Prevalence and significance of weight and shape concerns in girls aged 11-16 years. Br J Psychiatry 1997 Dec;171:542-4
A survey of 11- to 16-year-old girls was conducted to establish the prevalence of significant concerns about body weight and shape characteristics of eating disorders. A total of 1068 girls were screened and 368 interviewed. Significant weight and/or shape concerns were estimated to be present in 14.5% of the 11-to 12-year-olds, 14.9% of the 13-to 14-year-olds and 18.9% of the 15-to 16-year-olds. Only among those aged 15 to 16 was the presence of such concerns associated with a significant level of concurrent behavioral and ideational disturbance. Significant concerns about weight or shape are present in almost one in five 15-to 16-year-old girls, many of whom evidence high levels of ancillary disturbance.
Dixon R, Adair V, O'Connor S. Parental influences on the dieting beliefs and behaviors of adolescent females in New Zealand J Adolesc Health 1996 Oct;19(4):303-7.
A sample of 232, 8th and 9th grade girls attending New Zealand secondary school were questioned regarding their perceptions of being thinner, beliefs about dieting, and their dieting behavior. An association was found between girls' perceptions of the impact of being thinner, dieting beliefs, dieting behaviors, and parental encouragements to diet. In general, parental dieting practices did not influence dieting beliefs except that fathers' dieting behavior was associated with some aspects of girls' dieting behaviors.
Heatherton TF, Mahamedi F, Striepe M, Field AE, Keel P. (1997) A 10-year longitudinal study of body weight, dieting, and eating disorder symptoms J Abnorm Psychol ;106(1):117-25.
A 10-year study of eating attitudes and behaviors was completed with 509 women and 206 men to assess stability and change in eating behaviors that occurred during the transition to early adulthood. Women in the study had substantial declines in disordered eating behavior as well as increased body satisfaction. However, body dissatisfaction and desires to lose weight remained at relatively high levels. Men, who rarely dieted or had eating problems in college, were prone to weight gain following college, and many of them reported increased dieting or disordered eating. Body dissatisfaction remains a problem for a substantial segment of the adult population.
Hill AJ, Franklin JA. (1998) Mothers, daughters and dieting: investigating the transmission of weight control Br J Clin Psychol ;37 ( Pt 1):3-13.
This study examined maternal influences on weight and dieting concerns in 11-year old girls. Two groups of 20 11-year-old girls and their mothers completed assessments of dietary restraint (high or low), body shape preference, self-perception, family functioning and body weight and height. The mothers of high restraint girls did not differ from comparison mothers in their level of dieting, but reported more between-meal snacking and fasting. In addition, they rated their daughters' attractiveness significantly lower than the other mothers. Families with a highly restrained daughter scored significantly lower on perceived family cohesion, organization and moral-religious emphasis.
Killen JD, Taylor CB, Hayward C, Haydel KF, Wilson DM, Hammer L, Kraemer H, Blair-Greiner A, Strachowski D. Weight concerns influence the development of eating disorders: a 4-year prospective study.
J Consult Clin Psychol 1996 Oct;64(5):936-40
This study examined factors associated with the age of onset of partial syndrome eating disorders over a 4-year interval in a community sample (N = 877) of high school-age girls. Four percent developed a partial syndrome eating disorder during the interval. A measure of weight concerns was significantly associated with onset. Girls scoring in the highest quartile on the measure of weight concerns had the highest incidence (10%) of partial syndrome onset, whereas none of the girls in the lowest quartile developed eating disorder symptoms. This finding is consistent with both theoretical and clinical perspectives and may represent a useful step toward the establishment of a rational basis for the choice of a prevention intervention target.
Markovic J, Votava-Raic A, Nikolic S. Study of eating attitudes and body image perception in the preadolescent age.Coll Antropol. 1998 Jun;22(1):221-32.
Eating attitudes and body image have been studied in a group of 109 girls, pupils of the fifth primary school grade (average age 10 years and 8 months). The Children's Eating Attitude Test (ChEAT) has been used in the study of eating attitudes. The mean questionnaire score is 11.38 +/- 8 with a range of 0 to 45. Fourteen girls (12.8%) had a total score higher than 20, making them an eating disorder risk group. A set of seven schematic figures showing silhouettes of girls ranging from very thin to very heavy has been used in the study of body image perception. The girls were supposed to indicate the figure having the highest resemblance to their own figure (self figure), and the figure they would like to have (ideal self figure). The mean value of the current figure was 4.28, and that of the ideal figure 3.95. Satisfaction with their figure was expressed by 46.79% of the girls; 39.45% wanted to be thinner, and 13.45% to be heavier. When these data were compared with BMI, 27.52% (of the total) of the girls wanting to be thinner were found to have a normal BMI, and 11.93% a > 95 centile BMI. Among the girls satisfied with their figure 2 had a low and 2 a high BMI, while 43.12% were within the normal BMI range. Out of the 13.45% of girls wanting to be heavier, 6.42% (of the total) had a low BMI, 6.42% a normal BMI, and 0.92% (one girl) a > 95 centile BMI. The girls were divided into two groups in terms of the ChEAT score: ChEAT+ (anorexia risk) and ChEAT-. The groups differed in terms of body weight and BMI (the ChEAT+ group was heavier); ChEAT+ girls tended to prefer a thinner figure and experienced themselves as being heavier.
Nichter M, Ritenbaugh C, Nichter M, Vuckovic N, Aickin M. (1995) Dieting and "watching" behaviors among adolescent females: report of a multimethod study J Adolesc Health ;17(3):153-62.
A sample of 231 adolescent females was studied via interview, a survey questionnaire, a telephone interview, and food records. Although 44% of the girls reported trying to lose weight on the day of the survey, only 8.6% of the food records reflected dieting days. In interviews, many identified "watching what they eat" as a strategy that allowed them to maintain their weight. Analysis of food record data confirmed a trend toward higher intakes of micronutrients. "Watching" was widely utilized by girls in this sample as a way to maintain weight and promote health.
Ohzeki T, Otahara H, Hanaki K, Motozumi H, Shiraki K. (1993) Eating attitudes test in boys and girls aged 6-18 years: decrease in concerns with eating in boys and the increase in girls with their ages Psychopathology;26(3-4):117-21.
Concerns with eating were studied in 130 Japanese boys and 125 girls aged 6-18 years using the Simplified Eating Attitudes Test (s-EAT). The s-EAT scores in girls slightly increased with age. The mean scores in girls at age 10 years or older were significantly higher than in boys of the same age, suggesting that pubertal girls have more concerns with eating. On the other hand, s-EAT scores in boys that were not overweight decreased as they grew older, contributing, at least partly, to the sexual difference in eating behavior. The mean scores in overweight boys were higher than in boys that were not overweight. The score in boys correlated significantly with weight though there was no significant correlation in girls. These results suggest that, in addition to increased concerns with eating in girls, decreased concerns with age in boys is one of the causes of the sexual difference in eating behavior, especially during puberty. Eating behaviors in girls seem to be less influenced by changes in body weight than in boys.
Shisslak CM, Crago M, McKnight KM, Estes LS, Gray N, Parnaby OG. Potential risk factors associated with weight control behaviors in elementary and middle school girls.J Psychosom Res 1998 Mar-Apr;44(3-4):301-13
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between weight control behaviors and potential risk factors for disordered eating in a sample of young girls. The McKnight Risk Factor Survey was administered to 523 elementary and middle school girls. In the sample of elementary school girls, results indicated that frequency/severity of weight control behaviors was associated with body mass index (BMI), self-confidence, peers' weight-related pressures, ethnicity, and the interaction between having divorced/separated parents and BMI. Sensitivity to peers' weight-related pressures and BMI were also associated with weight control behaviors in the middle school girls, along with poor body image, substance use, having divorced/separated parents, and the interaction between having divorced/separated parents and father's pressure for thinness.
Strauss RS. (1999) Self-reported weight status and dieting in a cross-sectional sample of young adolescents: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med ;153(7):741-7.
Weights and heights were obtained on 1932 adolescents aged 12 to 16 years. Information on adolescents' perception of weight status, desired weight, and weight loss attempts was obtained by questionnaire. The adolescents' reports of whether they considered themselves overweight or normal weight correlated poorly with medical definitions of overweight: 52% of girls who considered themselves overweight were, in fact, normal weight (body mass index < or = 85th percentile), while only 25% of boys who considered themselves overweight were normal weight (P<.001). Adolescent white girls were significantly more likely to consider themselves overweight, even when their weight status was normal, than black girls (P<.001), black boys (P<.001), and white boys (P<.001). Adolescent white girls were also more likely to diet than black girls (P<.001), black boys (P<.001), and white boys (P<.001). Dieting behavior was associated with whether adolescents viewed themselves as overweight independent of whether they actually were overweight. Racial differences between dieting and self-perceived weight status were limited to girls. There were no significant differences in self-perceived weight status (P = .28), dieting behaviors (P = .99), and desire to weigh less (P = .95) among black and white boys.
Baker D, Sivyer R, Towell T Body image dissatisfaction and eating attitudes in visually impaired women.. Int J Eat Disord 1998 Nov;24(3):319-22
The high levels of body dissatisfaction and abnormal eating attitudes currently prevalent in Western societies, have been attributed to the promotion of an unrealistically thin ideal for women. We investigated the role of the visual media by examining the relationship between body image dissatisfaction and eating attitudes in visually impaired women. Questionnaires were administered to 60 women, 20 congenitally blind, 20 blinded later in life, and 20 sighted. Congenitally blind women had lower body dissatisfaction scores and more positive eating attitudes compared to women blinded later in life and sighted women, the latter having the highest body dissatisfaction scores and the most negative eating attitudes. Scores from sighted women were positively correlated with each other. The results suggest the importance of the visual media in promoting unrealistic images of thinness and beauty and are discussed from a socio-cultural perspective.
Wardle J, Beales S. Restraint, body image and food attitudes in children from 12 to 18 years.Appetite 1986 Sep;7(3):209-17
Body image, dietary restraint, attitudes to food and food intake pattern were assessed in a survey of 348 London schoolchildren from three age groups. The data revealed striking sex differences in body image, restraint and food attitudes, even in the youngest age group (12 to 13 years). The majority of girls felt too fat, attempted to restrict their food intake, and expressed guilt about eating. The boys expressed much less concern in all these areas. No differences were found across the age groups. The results suggested that normal English girls experience significant levels of distress over eating and weight.
Ohtahara H, Ohzeki T, Hanaki K, Motozumi H, Shiraki K. Abnormal perception of body weight is not solely observed in pubertal girls: incorrect body image in children and its relationship to body weight.Acta Psychiatr Scand 1993 Mar;87(3):218-22
Perceived actual body weight and perceived ideal weight were assessed in 255 Japanese children and adolescents (130 boys, 125 girls) aged 6 years through 18 years using the drawing test to clarify whether they wanted to be thinner or to gain weight. More than half (68%) of the girls attending high school and 41% of the elementary school girls perceived their ideal weight to be less than the standard. The mean difference between the perceived actual weight and the ideal weight was positive in the high school girls of normal weight as well as in the overweight girls, meaning that even the normal-weight girls wanted to lose weight. The difference was also slightly positive in the underweight girls. The difference in the high school boys was negative, demonstrating that they wished to gain weight. It is suggested that girls want to lose weight even before adolescence; this tendency becomes more prominent in the high school period and is mostly unrelated to their own weight.
Stein KF, Hedger KM. Body weight and shape self-cognitions, emotional distress, and disordered eating in middle adolescent girls. Arch Psychiatr Nurs 1997 Oct;11(5):264-75
Stability of body weight/shape self-schema and possible self was studied in a sample of middle adolescent girls during their transition from junior high to high school. The relationship between these self-cognitions and emotional distress and disordered eating behaviors was also explored. Subjects (N = 79) completed measures of self-cognitions, competence, and self-esteem in the 8th and 9th grades. Disordered eating and depression were measured in 9th grade. Eighth grade self-schema scores were used to identify the fat/out-of-shape (n = 21) and thin/athletic (n = 20) self-schema groups. For both groups, stability in the body weight/shape cognitions was found. Girls in the fat/out-of-shape group had lower self-esteem, appearance, and athletic competence scores in both grades and higher dieting and depression scores in 9th grade than the slim/athletic group. Regression analyses showed that the self-schema score was a stronger predictor of the outcomes than weight. Findings suggest that the body weight/shape self-schema plays an important role in adolescent girls' emotional health.
Taylor CB, Sharpe T, Shisslak C, Bryson S, Estes LS, Gray N, McKnight KM, Crago M, Kraemer HC, Killen JD. (1998) Factors associated with weight concerns in adolescent girls Int J Eat Disord ;24(1):31-42.
A sample of 78 elementary and 333 middle school students competed a self- report survey that showed that the importance that peers put on weight and eating was most strongly related to weight concerns in the elementary school girls. Weight concerns were also related to trying to look like girls/women on TV and in magazines as well as body mass index (BMI). In middle school, the importance that peers place on weight and eating was the strongest predictor of weight concerns, with BMI, trying to look like girls/women on TV and in magazines, and being teased about weight also important.
Specifically, abstracts include the following topics:
- Impact of media on women(magazines, TV, movies, and video games)
- Eating disorders and diet
- Self esteem and self image
2010
Bluemke, M., Friedrich, M., & Zumbach, J. (2010). The influence of violent and nonviolent computer games on implicit measures of aggressiveness. Aggress. Behavior, 36(1), 1-13.
We examined the causal relationship between playing violent video games and increases in aggressiveness by using implicit measures of aggressiveness, which have become important for accurately predicting impulsive behavioral tendencies. Ninety-six adults were randomly assigned to play one of three versions of a computer game that differed only with regard to game content (violent, peaceful, or abstract game), or to work on a reading task. In the games the environmental context, mouse gestures, and physiological arousal-as indicated by heart rate and skin conductance-were kept constant. In the violent game soldiers had to be shot, in the peaceful game sunflowers had to be watered, and the abstract game simply required clicking colored triangles. Five minutes of play did not alter trait aggressiveness, yet an Implicit Association Test detected a change in implicit aggressive self-concept. Playing a violent game produced a significant increase in implicit aggressive self-concept relative to playing a peaceful game. The well-controlled study closes a gap in the research on the causality of the link between violence exposure in computer games and aggressiveness with specific regard to implicit measures. We discuss the significance of importing recent social-cognitive theory into aggression research and stress the need for further development of aggression-related implicit measures.
2009
Body Image. 2009 Sep;6(4):257-69. Epub 2009 Aug 28.
Meta-analytic moderators of experimental exposure to media portrayals of women on female appearance satisfaction: Social comparisons as automatic processes.
Want SC.
Experimental exposure to idealized media portrayals of women is thought to induce social comparisons in female viewers and thereby to be generally detrimental to female viewers' satisfaction with their own appearance. Through meta-analysis, the present paper examines the impact of moderators of this effect, some identified and updated from a prior meta-analysis and some that have hitherto received little attention. Participants' pre-existing appearance concerns and the processing instructions participants were given when exposed to media portrayals were found to significantly moderate effect sizes. With regard to processing instructions, a novel and counter-intuitive pattern was revealed; effect sizes were smallest when participants were instructed to focus on the appearance of women in media portrayals, and largest when participants processed the portrayals on a distracting, non-appearance dimension. These results are interpreted through a framework that suggests that social comparisons are automatic processes, the effects of which can be modified through conscious processing.
Encephale. 2009 Jun;35(3):262-8. Epub 2008 Sep 20.
[The impact of exposure to images of ideally thin models on body dissatisfaction in young French and Italian women]
Rodgers R, Chabrol H.
AIMS: The thin-ideal of feminine beauty has a strong impact on body image and plays a central part in eating disorders. This ideal is widely promoted by the media images that flood western societies. Although the harmful effects of exposure to thin-ideal media images have been repeatedly demonstrated experimentally in English-speaking western countries, no such studies exist in southern Europe. There is evidence to suggest that the use of average-size models could reduce these negative effects. This study investigates body image amongst French and Italian students following exposure to media images of thin or average-size models, with a neutral or supportive slogan. METHODS: The data were gathered in three locations: the psychology departments of the Universities of Padua, Italy, and Toulouse, France, and lastly high schools in the Toulouse area. A total of 299 girls took part in the study; their average age was 19.9 years old (S.D.=2.54) In order to investigate the effects of media images, we created three fake advertisements, allegedly promoting body-cream. The first advertisement displayed an ideally-thin model accompanied by a neutral slogan. In the second, the model was average-size with the same neutral slogan. The last advertisement also contained the average-size model, but with a supportive slogan designed to convey acceptance of deviations from the social norms of thinness. The participants first graded themselves on a VAS of body dissatisfaction (0 to 10). On the basis of this score, we created a first group containing girls reporting body dissatisfaction (VAS>or=5), the second with those reporting no body dissatisfaction (VAS<5). Participants were then randomly exposed to one of the three advertisements, after which they filled in the body dissatisfaction sub-scale of the Eating Disorders Inventory (EDI-2). RESULTS: The results showed that girls with initial body dissatisfaction reported higher body dissatisfaction after being exposed to images of ideally thin models than images of average-size models (F(1.32)=4.64, p=0.039). However, there was no significant difference between body dissatisfaction scores reported after exposure to images of average-size models accompanied by neutral or supportive slogans (F(1.39)=0.093, p=0.76). CONCLUSIONS: This study illustrates the negative effects of exposure to thin-ideal media images among students with body dissatisfaction. The use of average-size models in the media and advertising might help reduce these effects. No improvement was obtained via the use of a supportive slogan. These results highlight the importance of media literacy campaigns in the prevention of eating disorders.
Ann Plast Surg. 2009 Jan;62(1):7-11.
Cosmetic surgery reality TV viewership: relations with cosmetic surgery attitudes, body image, and disordered eating.
Sperry S, Thompson JK, Sarwer DB, Cash TF.
BACKGROUND: According to the American Society of Plastic Surgeons (2007), the number of cosmetic procedures has increased to over 10 million in 2006, representing a 48% increase from 2000. This increase in cosmetic surgery prevalence is paralleled by a surge in reality cosmetic surgery television programming. METHODS: The current study examined the relationships among cosmetic surgery reality TV viewership, cosmetic surgery attitudes, body image, and disordered eating in a sample of 2057 college women. RESULTS: Viewership of reality cosmetic surgery shows was significantly related to more favorable cosmetic surgery attitudes, perceived pressure to have cosmetic surgery, past attainment of a cosmetic procedure, a decreased fear of surgery, as well as overall body dissatisfaction, media internalization, and disordered eating. CONCLUSIONS: Although the current study is correlational, it provides a framework for future hypothesis testing and elucidates the link between contemporary media influences, body dissatisfaction, disordered eating, and cosmetic surgery attitudes. Additionally, the findings indicate that surgeons may want to assess the relevance of cosmetic surgery reality TV viewership for patients' attitudes towards and expectations about cosmetic surgery.
Body Image. 2009 Sep;6(4):315-7. Epub 2009 Aug 4.
Body appreciation, media influence, and weight status predict consideration of cosmetic surgery among female undergraduates.
Swami V.
The current study examined the association between consideration of cosmetic surgery, body appreciation, media influence, and participant demographics. In total, 322 female university students completed the Consider subscale of the Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery Scale, the third revision of Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Scale (SATAQ-3), the Body Appreciation Scale (BAS), and provided their demographic details. Bivariate correlations showed that consideration of cosmetic surgery was significantly and positively correlated with three of the SATAQ-3 subscales and negatively correlated with BAS scores, age, and body mass index (BMI). A multiple regression showed that the only significant predictors of consideration of cosmetic surgery were greater media influence, less body appreciation, and lower BMI. These results are discussed in relation to the extant literature on attitudes towards cosmetic surgery.
J Youth Adolesc. 2009 Mar;38(3):417-28. Epub 2008 Sep 9.
The role of violent media preference in cumulative developmental risk for violence and general aggression.
Boxer P, Huesmann LR, Bushman BJ, O'Brien M, Moceri D.
The impact of exposure to violence in the media on the long-term development and short-term expression of aggressive behavior has been well documented. However, gaps in this literature remain, and in particular the role of violent media exposure in shaping violent and other serious antisocial behavior has not been investigated. Further, studies of violent media effects typically have not sampled from populations with confirmed histories of violent and/or nonviolent antisocial behavior. In this study, we analyzed data on 820 youth, including 390 juvenile delinquents and 430 high school students, to examine the relation of violent media use to involvement in violence and general aggression. Using criterion scores developed through cross-informant modeling of data from self, parent/guardian, and teacher/staff reports, we observed that childhood and adolescent violent media preferences contributed significantly to the prediction of violence and general aggression from cumulative risk totals. Findings represent a new and important direction for research on the role of violent media use in the broader matrix of risk factors for youth violence.
Pediatrics. 2009 Nov;124(5):1495-503. Epub 2009 Oct 19.
From the American Academy of Pediatrics: Policy statement--Media violence.
Council on Communications and Media.
Collaborators (21)
Fuld GL, Mulligan DA, Altmann TR, Brown A, Christakis DA, Clarke-Pearson K, Dreyer BP, Falik HL, Nelson KG, O'Keeffe GS, Strasburger VC, Milteer RM, Shifrin DL, Brody M, Wilcox B, Anderson CA, Gentile DA, Milteer RM, Shifrin DL, Steiner GL, Noland VL.
Exposure to violence in media, including television, movies, music, and video games, represents a significant risk to the health of children and adolescents. Extensive research evidence indicates that media violence can contribute to aggressive behavior, desensitization to violence, nightmares, and fear of being harmed. Pediatricians should assess their patients' level of media exposure and intervene on media-related health risks. Pediatricians and other child health care providers can advocate for a safer media environment for children by encouraging media literacy, more thoughtful and proactive use of media by children and their parents, more responsible portrayal of violence by media producers, and more useful and effective media ratings. Office counseling has been shown to be effective.
J Pediatr. 2009 May;154(5):759-63. Epub 2009 Feb 23.
The public health risks of media violence: a meta-analytic review.
Ferguson CJ, Kilburn J.
OBJECTIVE: To conduct a meta-analytic review of studies that examine the impact of violent media on aggressive behavior and to determine whether this effect could be explained through methodological problems inherent in this research field. STUDY DESIGN: A detailed literature search identified peer-reviewed articles addressing media violence effects. Effect sizes were calculated for all studies. Effect sizes were adjusted for observed publication bias. RESULTS: Publication bias was a problem for studies of aggressive behavior, and methodological problems such as the use of poor aggression measures inflated effect size. Once corrected for publication bias, studies of media violence effects provided little support for the hypothesis that media violence is associated with higher aggression. The corrected overall effect size for all studies was r = .08. CONCLUSIONS: Results from the current analysis do not support the conclusion that media violence leads to aggressive behavior. It cannot be concluded at this time that media violence presents a significant public health risk.
Body Image. 2009 Jan;6(1):52-5. Epub 2008 Nov 7.
The relationship between media exposure and antifat attitudes: the role of dysfunctional appearance beliefs.
Lin L, Reid K.
This study examined the relationship between media exposure, antifat attitudes, and body dissatisfaction, as well as the mediating effect of dysfunctional appearance beliefs. A sample of 112 women completed surveys measuring media exposure, antifat attitudes, body dissatisfaction, and dysfunctional beliefs about appearance. It was found that time spent reading fashion magazines was positively correlated with antifat attitudes and that this relationship was mediated by dysfunctional beliefs about appearance. Measures of antifat attitudes and body dissatisfaction were both found to be correlated with endorsement of dysfunctional beliefs about appearance and body mass index. Results suggest that time spent reading fashion magazines may be related to antifat attitudes through dysfunctional appearance beliefs.
2008
Psicothema. 2008 Nov;20(4):521-4.
Media influences on body satisfaction in female students.
Tucci S, Peters J.
The present study examined the immediate impact of media portrayals on evaluations of body shape and disordered eating symptomatology in female undergraduates. By using a repeated measures design, participants (N= 42) were exposed on two consecutive occasions to magazine images representing the thin-ideal physique and overweight models. Body satisfaction was recorded both before and after exposure to the images and eating disorder symptomatology was measured following both exposures. Results showed that participants' body satisfaction scores decreased following exposure to the thin-ideal physique and increased following exposure to the larger models. When analysing eating disorder symptomatology, body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness were higher following exposure to slender media images compared to the larger media images. However, exposure to the thin-ideal physique did not increase disordered eating behaviours. These results provide evidence that one brief exposure to media images could exert immediate impact on some behaviours, attitudes and perceptions.
Appetite. 2008 Nov;51(3):530-7. Epub 2008 Apr 8.
The bold and the beautiful. Influence of body size of televised media models on body dissatisfaction and actual food intake.
Anschutz DJ, Engels RC, Becker ES, van Strien T.
The effects of exposure to televised thin and average size models on body dissatisfaction and actual food intake were examined. Normal weight female students (N=104) were exposed to a 30-min movie clip featuring beautiful girls. Half of them viewed the movie clip in normal screen size (4:3) and the other half viewed the same movie clip in broad screen size (16:9), in which the body size of the actresses was slightly stretched breadthways. Actual food intake while watching and body dissatisfaction afterwards was examined. Additionally, restrained eating was assessed as a possible moderating variable. Two interaction effects were found between screen size and restrained eating on body dissatisfaction and actual food intake. Restrained eaters tended to feel worse and eat less in the average size condition compared to the thin model condition, whereas unrestrained eaters felt worse and ate less in the thin model condition compared to the average size condition. So, body size of televised images affected body dissatisfaction and food intake, differentially for restrained and unrestrained eaters. The screen sizes used correspond with widely used screen sizes nowadays enhancing the practical relevance of the study, since screen size might affect body dissatisfaction and food intake in daily life as well.
Body Image. 2008 Mar;5(1):70-9. Epub 2007 Sep 21.
Susceptibility for thin ideal media and eating styles.
Anschutz DJ, Engels RC, Van Strien T.
This study examined the relations between susceptibility for thin ideal media and restrained, emotional and external eating, directly and indirectly through body dissatisfaction. Thin ideal media susceptibility, body dissatisfaction and eating styles were measured in a sample of 163 female students. Structural equation modelling was used for analyses, controlling for BMI. Higher susceptibility for thin ideal media was directly related to higher scores on all eating styles, and indirectly related to higher restrained and emotional eating through elevated levels of body dissatisfaction. So, thin ideal media susceptibility was not only related to restraint through body dissatisfaction, but also directly. Emotional eaters might be more vulnerable for negative affect, whereas external eaters might be more sensitive to external cues in general.
Eat Disord. 2008 Jul-Sep;16(4):294-307.
Internalization of the ultra-thin ideal: positive implicit associations with underweight fashion models are associated with drive for thinness in young women.
Ahern AL, Bennett KM, Hetherington MM.
This study examined whether young women who make implicit associations between underweight models and positive attributes report elevated eating disorder symptoms. Ninety nine female undergraduates completed a weight based implicit association test (IAT) and self report measures of body dissatisfaction, thin-ideal internalization and eating disorder symptoms. IAT scores were associated with drive for thinness (r = -0.26, p < 0.05). This relationship was moderated by attitude importance. The relationship between drive for thinness and IAT scores was stronger (r = 0.34; p < 0.02) in participants who report that the media is an important source of information about fashion and being attractive. The IAT used in the current study is sensitive enough to discriminate between participants on drive for thinness. Women who have developed cognitive schemas that associate being underweight with positive attributes report higher eating disorder symptoms. Attitude importance is highlighted as a key construct in thin ideal internalization.
Adolesc Med State Art Rev. 2008 Dec;19(3):521-46, x-xi.
Hogan MJ, Strasburger VC.
Adolescence is a time of tremendous change in physical appearance. Many adolescents report dissatisfaction with their body shape and size. Forming one's body image is a complex process, influenced by family, peers, and media messages. Increasing evidence shows that the combination of ubiquitous ads for foods and emphasis on female beauty and thinness in both advertising and programming leads to confusion and dissatisfaction for many young people. Sociocultural factors, specifically media exposure, play an important role in the development of disordered body image. Of significant concern, studies have revealed a link between media exposure and the likelihood of having symptoms of disordered eating or a frank eating disorder. Pediatricians and other adults must work to promote media education and make media healthier for young people. More research is needed to identify the most vulnerable children and adolescents.
Adolesc Med State Art Rev. 2008 Dec;19(3):431-49, viii-ix.
Jordan AB, Kramer-Golinkoff EK, Strasburger VC.
In this article we examine media use and its relationship to adolescent overweight/obesity and adolescent eating disorders. We consider the potential mechanisms through which exposure to media during adolescence (both amount of time and choice of content) might exacerbate unhealthy eating and physical activity patterns. We consider strategies that health care providers can use to identify problematic media use and suggestions they might offer to adolescents and their parents for ways to make media a more positive agent in young people's healthy development.
Pediatrics. 2008 Nov;122(5):929-37.
Linkages between internet and other media violence with seriously violent behavior by youth.
Ybarra ML, Diener-West M, Markow D, Leaf PJ, Hamburger M, Boxer P.
OBJECTIVE: The goal was to examine the association between violence in the media and the expression of seriously violent behavior among older children and teenagers in a national sample. METHODS: The Growing up with Media survey was a national, online survey of 1588 youths that was conducted in August and September 2006. Participants were 10- to 15-year-old youths who had used the Internet at least once in the past 6 months. The main outcome measure was self-reported seriously violent behavior, including (1) shooting or stabbing someone, (2) aggravated assault, (3) robbery, and (4) sexual assault. RESULTS: Five percent of youths reported engaging in seriously violent behavior in the past 12 months. Thirty-eight percent reported exposure to violence online. Exposures to violence in the media, both online and off-line, were associated with significantly elevated odds for concurrently reporting seriously violent behavior. Compared with otherwise similar youths, those who indicated that many, most, or all of the Web sites they visited depicted real people engaged in violent behavior were significantly more likely to report seriously violent behavior. After adjustment for underlying differences in youth characteristics, respondents' alcohol use, propensity to respond to stimuli with anger, delinquent peers, parental monitoring, and exposures to violence in the community also were associated with significantly increased odds of concurrently reporting seriously violent behavior. CONCLUSIONS: Exposure to violence in the media is associated with concurrent reports of seriously violent behavior across media (eg, games and music). Newer forms of violent media seem to be especially concerning.
2007
J Adolesc Health. 2007 Dec;41(6 Suppl 1):S6-13.
The impact of electronic media violence: scientific theory and research.
Huesmann LR.
Since the early 1960s, research evidence has been accumulating that suggests that exposure to violence in television, movies, video games, cell phones, and on the Internet increases the risk of violent behavior on the viewer's part, just as growing up in an environment filled with real violence increases the risk of them behaving violently. In the current review this research evidence is critically assessed and the psychological theory that explains why exposure to violence has detrimental effects for both the short and long-term is elaborated. Finally the size of the "media violence effect" is compared with some other well-known threats to society to estimate how important a threat it should be considered.
Friederich HC, Uher R, Brooks S, Giampietro V, Brammer M, Williams SC, Herzog W, Treasure J, Campbell IC. I'm not as slim as that girl: Neural bases of body shape self-comparison to media images. Neuroimage. 2007 Aug 15;37(2):674-681.
The aim of the present study was to assess the impact of images of slim female fashion models on healthy young women. Brain responses to images of slim-idealized bodies (active condition) and interior designs (control condition) were measured using functional neuroimaging in 18 healthy young women. Instructions encouraged the participants to compare their own body shape/own home with the one in the images. Participants rated the level of anxiety that they experienced while exposed to the images. In the active relative to the control condition, participants activated body shape processing networks, including the lateral fusiform gyrus on both sides, the right inferior parietal lobule, the right lateral prefrontal cortex and the left anterior cingulate. The level of reported anxiety during the exposure to slim bodies correlated with established measures of shape and weight concern and with brain activations in bilateral basal ganglia, left amygdala, bilateral dorsal anterior cingulate, and left inferior lateral prefrontal cortex. Brain networks associated with anxiety induced by self-comparison to slim images may be involved in the genesis of body dissatisfaction and hence with vulnerability to eating disorders.
Eddy KT, Hennessey M, Thompson-Brenner HEating pathology in East African women: the role of media exposure and globalization. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2007 Mar;195(3):196-202.
Eating disorder (ED) pathology and its relation to media exposure and globalization were assessed in a sample of young Tanzanian females (N = 214; 19.4 years +/- 3.8 years). Participants completed Kiswahili versions of a DSM-IV ED symptom clinical interview, the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI), and a media exposure/globalization questionnaire. One third endorsed cognitive ED symptoms; bingeing (10%) and purging (5%) were less common. Four women (1.9%) met modified criteria for anorexia nervosa, one for bulimia nervosa, and 10 (4.7%) reported clinically significant ED pathology consistent with an ED not otherwise specified diagnosis. Media exposure and Western exposure (e.g., travel abroad) were positively associated with ED symptoms. The intended factor structure of the EDI was not supported. Eating pathology is present in this developing nation and is most common in subpopulations with increased exposure to Western culture. Future research should replicate these findings to clarify the role of Western media in the development of ED pathology.
Harper K, Sperry S, Thompson JK. 2007 Viewership of pro-eating disorder websites: Association with body image and eating disturbances. Int J Eat Disord.
A sample of 1575 women were surveyed for viewership of a variety of websites, including those promoting disordered eating (pro-eating disorder) and those providing information about eating disorders (professional). RESULTS:: Individuals who frequented pro-eating disorder sites had higher levels of body dissatisfaction and eating disturbance than a control group. The group who frequented only professional information websites, but not pro-eating disorder websites, differed from controls on only one of the four measures of disturbance. The pro-eating disorder group did not differ from the professional group on any measure. CONCLUSION:: The findings offer moderate evidence indicating that viewers of pro-eating disorder sites have higher levels of disturbance than a control sample of nonviewers, but limited evidence that those who view pro-eating disorder sites differ from individuals who view professional sites offering information regarding eating disorders. The findings are discussed in light of the difficulty determining causality in this area of inquiry and a cautionary note regarding the potential iatrogenic effects of this type of research is offered.
Ricciardelli LA, McCabe MP, Williams RJ, Thompson JK.
The role of ethnicity and culture in body image and disordered eating among males. Clin Psychol Rev. 2007 Jun;27(5):582-606
An increasing number of researchers have examined body image concerns, disordered eating, and other behaviors associated with increasing muscle size among men from different cultural groups. However, to date there has been no synthesis or evaluation of these studies. In this paper we specifically review studies which have included a comparison between males from different cultural groups with White males on body image concerns or other related behaviors. The groups include Blacks, Hispanic Americans, Asians, Native Americans, Pacific Islanders, and men from Middle Eastern countries. Overall, evidence suggests that males from a range of cultural groups engage in more extreme body change strategies and binge eating than Whites. On the other hand, there is no consistent pattern which summarizes the nature of body image concerns across the different cultures. Mediating and/or moderating variables are proposed to account for the inconsistent findings. These include body build, levels of acculturation, socio-economic status, media exposure, and internalization of the muscular and lean body ideal.
van den Berg P, Neumark-Sztainer D, Hannan PJ, Haines J.
Is dieting advice from magazines helpful or harmful? Five-year associations with weight-control behaviors and psychological outcomes in adolescents. Pediatrics. 2007 Jan;119(1):e30-7.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the association between frequent reading of magazine articles about dieting/weight loss and weight-control behaviors and psychological outcomes 5 years later in a sample of adolescents. Data are from Project EAT (Eating Among Teens), a 5-year longitudinal study of eating, activity, weight, and related variables in 2516 middle and high school students. In 1999 (time 1), participants completed surveys and had their height and weight measured. In 2004 (time 2), participants were resurveyed. RESULTS: For female adolescents, the frequency of healthy, unhealthy, and extreme weight-control behaviors increased with increasing magazine reading after adjusting for time 1 weight-control behaviors, weight importance, BMI, and demographic covariates. The odds of engaging in unhealthy weight-control behaviors (such as fasting, skipping meals, and smoking more cigarettes) were twice as high for the most frequent readers compared with those who did not read magazine articles about dieting and weight loss. The odds of using extreme weight-control behaviors (such as vomiting or using laxatives) were 3 times higher in the highest frequency readers compared with those who did not read such magazines. There were no significant associations for either weight-control behaviors or psychological outcomes for male adolescents. CONCLUSIONS: Frequent reading of magazine articles about dieting/weight loss strongly predicted unhealthy weight-control behaviors in adolescent girls, but not boys, 5 years later. Findings from this study, in conjunction with findings from previous studies, suggest a need for interventions aimed at reducing exposure to, and the importance placed on, media messages regarding dieting and weight loss.
Ayala GX, Mickens L, Galindo P, Elder JP. Acculturation and body image perception among Latino youth. Ethn Health. 2007 Jan;12(1):21-41.
One hundred and sixty-seven Latino youth were surveyed as part of a tailored nutrition communication intervention. The youth's mean age was 12.81 years (SD = 2.74) and 54% were female. Mean self-rated health was 2.59 (SD = 1.02; range: 1 = good to 5 = poor), despite 70% reporting a desire to be thinner. Using age and gender-specific growth charts, 16% of the youth were classified as at risk for overweight and 34% were classified as overweight. RESULTS: Among adolescents, girls (p < or = 0.001), youth who were classified as at risk for or being overweight (p < or = 0.001), and who more strongly recognized and agreed with socially sanctioned standards of appearance as represented in the media (Standardized beta St. beta = 1.86, p < or = 0.001) were more dissatisfied with their body image (R(2) = 0.57). Among children, being at risk for or overweight (p < or = 0.001), reporting a stronger affiliation with the Mexican culture (St. beta = 0.84, p < or = 0.01) and stronger expectations that a healthy diet was associated with improved appearance (St. beta = 0.63, p < or = 0.05) predicted greater body image dissatisfaction (R(2) = 0.55). CONCLUSION: Interventions that address sociocultural attitudes toward appearance may be effective at reducing both the prevalence of body image dissatisfaction and disordered eating.
Psychiatr Q. 2007 Dec;78(4):309-16.
The good, the bad and the ugly: a meta-analytic review of positive and negative effects of violent video games.
Ferguson CJ.
OBJECTIVE: Video game violence has become a highly politicized issue for scientists and the general public. There is continuing concern that playing violent video games may increase the risk of aggression in players. Less often discussed is the possibility that playing violent video games may promote certain positive developments, particularly related to visuospatial cognition. The objective of the current article was to conduct a meta-analytic review of studies that examine the impact of violent video games on both aggressive behavior and visuospatial cognition in order to understand the full impact of such games. METHODS: A detailed literature search was used to identify peer-reviewed articles addressing violent video game effects. Effect sizes r (a common measure of effect size based on the correlational coefficient) were calculated for all included studies. Effect sizes were adjusted for observed publication bias. RESULTS: Results indicated that publication bias was a problem for studies of both aggressive behavior and visuospatial cognition. Once corrected for publication bias, studies of video game violence provided no support for the hypothesis that violent video game playing is associated with higher aggression. However playing violent video games remained related to higher visuospatial cognition (r (x) = 0.36). CONCLUSIONS: Results from the current analysis did not support the conclusion that violent video game playing leads to aggressive behavior. However, violent video game playing was associated with higher visuospatial cognition. It may be advisable to reframe the violent video game debate in reference to potential costs and benefits of this medium.
2006
Acad Psychiatry. 2006 May-Jun;30(3):257-61.
Body image, media, and eating disorders.
Derenne JL, Beresin EV.
OBJECTIVE: Eating disorders, including obesity, are a major public health problem today. Throughout history, body image has been determined by various factors, including politics and media. Exposure to mass media (television, movies, magazines, Internet) is correlated with obesity and negative body image, which may lead to disordered eating. The authors attempt to explain the historical context of the problem and explore potential avenues for change. METHOD: The authors review changes in ideal female body type throughout history, comment on current attitudes toward shape and weight in both men and women, and outline interventions aimed at increasing healthy habits and fostering self-esteem in youth. RESULTS: Throughout history, the ideal of beauty has been difficult to achieve and has been shaped by social context. Current mass media is ubiquitous and powerful, leading to increased body dissatisfaction among both men and women. CONCLUSION: Parents need to limit children's exposure to media, promote healthy eating and moderate physical activity, and encourage participation in activities that increase mastery and self-esteem. Funding for high-quality, visible advertising campaigns promoting healthy life styles may increase awareness.
Lawrie Z, Sullivan EA, Davies PS, Hill RJ. Media influence on the body image of children and adolescents. Eat Disord. 2006 Oct-Dec;14(5):355-64.
To study the media messages portrayed to children, 925 students, from 9 to up to 14 years of age, completed "The Sociocultural Influences Questionnaire." The media section is the focus of this paper, and the responses from three questions were selected to examine the media's influence to be slimmer, increase weight, or increase muscle size. While the girls and boys exhibited different levels of agreement with each media influence, both genders disagreed that media messages were implying they should gain weight. This is in agreement with the belief that the media perpetuates the ideal of thinness and there is a negative stigma associated with being overweight.
Monro FJ, Huon GF. Media-portrayed idealized images, self-objectification, and eating behavior. Eat Behav. 2006 Nov;7(4):375-83.
This study examined the effects of media-portrayed idealized images on young women's eating behavior. The study compared the effects for high and low self-objectifiers. 72 female university students participated in this experiment. Six magazine advertisements featuring idealized female models were used as the experimental stimuli, and the same six advertisements with the idealized body digitally removed became the control stimuli. Eating behavior was examined using a classic taste test that involved both sweet and savory food. Participants' restraint status was assessed. We found that total food intake after exposure was the same in the body present and absent conditions. There were also no differences between high and low self-objectifiers' total food intake. However, for the total amount of food consumed and for sweet food there were significant group by condition interaction effects. High self-objectifiers ate more food in the body present than the body absent condition. In contrast, low self-objectifiers ate more food in the body absent than in the body present condition. Restraint status was not found to moderate the relationship between exposure to idealized images the amount of food consumed. Our results indicate that exposure to media-portrayed idealized images can lead to changes in eating behavior and highlight the complexity of the association between idealized image exposure and eating behavior. These results are discussed in terms of their implications for the prevention of dieting-related disorders.
Hill AJ.Motivation for eating behaviour in adolescent girls: the body beautiful. Proc Nutr Soc. 2006 Nov;65(4):376-84.
Body dissatisfaction is commonplace for teenage girls and is associated with dieting and unhealthy weight-control behaviours. The idealisation and pursuit of thinness are seen as the main drivers of body dissatisfaction, with the media prominent in setting thin body ideals. Television and consumer magazine production in the UK are extensive, annually releasing 1x10(6) h programming and >3000 magazine titles. Their engagement by adolescent girls is high, and in surveys girls identify thin and revealing body images as influential to the appeal of thinness and their pursuit of dieting. Experimental studies show a short-term impact of these images on body dissatisfaction, especially in teenagers who are already concerned about body image. Magazine images appear more influential than television viewing. For many adolescents selecting thin-image media is purposive, permitting comparison of themselves with the models or celebrities featured. Indeed, the impact of the media needs to be understood within a social context, as engagement is often a highly-social process. Media influence is uneven because of differences in its content and manner of communication, and individual differences in vulnerability to its content. Greater social responsibility on the part of the media and better media literacy by children would be beneficial. For those working in adolescent nutrition it is a reminder that adolescent food choice and intake are subject to many competing, contradictory and non-health-related determinants.
Elgin J, Pritchard M. Gender differences in disordered eating and its correlates. Eat Weight Disord. 2006 Sep;11(3):e96-101.
The goal of this study was to examine gender differences in the prevalence of disordered eating and body dissatisfaction as well as examine gender differences in several risk factors: mass media, self-esteem and perfectionism. Three hundred fifty-three undergraduates completed surveys about their body dissatisfaction, disordered eating habits, exposure to and influence of mass media, self-esteem and perfectionistic tendencies. As expected, women experienced more symptoms of disordered eating as well as body dissatisfaction than did their male counterparts. There were also gender differences in the risk factors. For women, mass media, self-esteem, and perfectionism related to disordered eating behaviors, whereas for men, only perfectionism and mass media related to disordered eating behaviors. For women, mass media and self-esteem related to body image dissatisfaction, whereas for men, mass media and perfectionism related to body image dissatisfaction. The results of the present study indicate that risk factors for disordered eating and body dissatisfaction for men and women may be different, which has implications for understanding the etiology of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating and for possible treatment interventions.
Derenne JL, Beresin EV. Body image, media, and eating disorders. Acad Psychiatry. 2006 May-Jun;30(3):257-61.
Eating disorders, including obesity, are a major public health problem today. Throughout history, body image has been determined by various factors, including politics and media. Exposure to mass media (television, movies, magazines, Internet) is correlated with obesity and negative body image, which may lead to disordered eating. The authors attempt to explain the historical context of the problem and explore potential avenues for change. METHOD: The authors review changes in ideal female body type throughout history, comment on current attitudes toward shape and weight in both men and women, and outline interventions aimed at increasing healthy habits and fostering self-esteem in youth. RESULTS: Throughout history, the ideal of beauty has been difficult to achieve and has been shaped by social context. Current mass media is ubiquitous and powerful, leading to increased body dissatisfaction among both men and women. CONCLUSION: Parents need to limit children's exposure to media, promote healthy eating and moderate physical activity, and encourage participation in activities that increase mastery and self-esteem. Funding for high-quality, visible advertising campaigns promoting healthy life styles may increase awareness.
2005
Field AE, Austin SB, Camargo CA, Taylor CB, Striegel-Moore RH, Loud KJ, Colditz GA. Exposure to the mass media, body shape concerns, and use of supplements to improve weight and shape among male and female adolescents. Pediatrics. 2005 Aug;116(2):e214-20.
OBJECTIVE: To assess the prevalence and correlates of products used to improve weight and shape among male and female adolescents. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted of 6212 girls and 4237 boys who were 12 to 18 years of age and enrolled in the ongoing Growing Up Today Study. The outcome measure was at least weekly use of any of the following products to improve appearance, muscle mass, or strength: protein powder or shakes, creatine, amino acids/hydroxy methylbutyrate (HMB), dehydroepiandrosterone, growth hormone, or anabolic/injectable steroids. RESULTS: Approximately 4.7% of the boys and 1.6% of the girls used protein powder or shakes, creatine, amino acids/HMB, dehydroepiandrosterone, growth hormone, or anabolic/injectable steroids at least weekly to improve appearance or strength. In multivariate models, boys and girls who thought a lot about wanting more defined muscles (boys: odds ratio [OR]: 1.6; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.1-2.2; girls: OR: 2.3; 95% CI: 1.2-3.2) or were trying to gain weight (boys: OR: 3.0; 95% CI: 2.0-4.6; girls: OR: 4.3; 95% CI: 1.6-11.4) were more likely than their peers to use these products. In addition, boys who read men's, fashion, or health/fitness magazines (OR: 2.3; 95% CI: 1.1-4.9) and girls who were trying to look like women in the media (OR: 2.9; 95% CI: 1.4-4.0) were significantly more likely than their peers to use products to improve appearance or strength, but hours per week watching television, watching sports on television, and participation in team sports were not independently associated with using products to improve appearance or muscle mass. CONCLUSIONS: Girls and boys who frequently thought about wanting toned or well-defined muscles were at increased risk for using potentially unhealthful products to enhance their physique. These results suggest that just as girls may resort to unhealthful means to achieve a low body weight, girls and boys may also resort to unhealthful means to achieve other desired physiques.
Becker AE, Gilman SE, Burwell RAChanges in prevalence of overweight and in body image among Fijian women between 1989 and 1998.. Obes Res. 2005 Jan;13(1):110-7.
To investigate changes in prevalence of overweight and obesity and in body image among ethnic Fijian women in Fiji during a period of rapid social change and the relationship between changes in body image and BMI. The study design was a multiwave cohort study of BMI in a traditional Fijian village over a 9.5-year period from 1989 to 1998. Cohorts were identified in 1989 (n=53) and in 1998 (n=50). Selection criteria included Fijian ethnicity, female gender, age of at least 18 years, and residence in a specific coastal Fijian village in 1989 and 1998, respectively. Assessments consisted of measurement of height and weight, collection of demographic data by written survey, and administration of the Nadroga Language Body Image Questionnaire. The prevalence of overweight and obesity was significantly different between the cohorts, increasing from 60% in 1989 to 84% in 1998 (p=0.014). In addition, the age-adjusted mean BMI was significantly higher in 1998 compared with 1989 (p=0.011). Finally, there were significant between-cohort differences in multiple measures of body image, which were mostly independent of BMI. At 84%, the prevalence of overweight and obesity in this community sample of Fijian women is among the highest in the world. The dramatically increased prevalence over the 9.5-year period studied corresponds with rapid social change in Fiji and significant shifts in prevailing traditional attitudes toward body shape.
Muris P, Meesters C, van de Blom W, Mayer B. Biological, psychological, and sociocultural correlates of body change strategies and eating problems in adolescent boys and girls. Eat Behav. 2005 Jan;6(1):11-22.
The present study examines correlates of body change strategies and eating problems in youths. A large sample of adolescents aged 12 to 16 years (N = 307) was asked to complete a set of questionnaires, which measured biological (age, pubertal status, and body mass index [BMI]), psychological (self-esteem, body dissatisfaction, body importance, and body comparison), and sociocultural variables (influence of media, parents, and peers), as well as body change strategies and disturbed eating attitudes and behaviors. Results showed that boys generally try to become more muscular, whereas girls attempt to lose weight. Further, correlational and regression analyses demonstrated that biological, psychological, and sociocultural influences made unique and significant contributions to various body image and body change/eating problems variables. Finally, hierarchical regression analyses yielded theoretically meaningful models for the main body change strategies in boys and girls. In these models, BMI, self-esteem, and sociocultural influences turned out to be significant predictor variables, while body-image-related factors, and in particular body comparison (i.e., the tendency to compare one's body with that of others), partially or fully mediated the influence of some predictor variables.
Winkler C, Rhodes G. Perceptual adaptation affects attractiveness of female bodies. Br J Psychol. 2005 May;96(Pt 2):141-54.
We investigated whether short durations (5 minutes) of exposure to distorted bodies can change subsequent perceptions of attractiveness and normality. Participants rated 110 female bodies, varying in width, on either their attractiveness or normality before and after exposure to either extremely narrow (-50% of original width in Experiments 1 and 2) or extremely wide bodies (+50% of original width in Experiment 1, and +70% of original width in Experiment 2). In both experiments, the most attractive and most normal looking bodies became significantly and substantially narrower after exposure to narrow bodies. The most normal looking body changed significantly after exposure to wide bodies, but the most attractive body did not. These results show that perceptions of body attractiveness can be influenced by experience, but that there is an asymmetry between the effects of exposure to narrow and wide bodies. We consider a possible mechanism for this unexpected asymmetry, as well as possible implications for the effects of media exposure on body-image. The most attractive body shape was consistently narrower than the most normal looking body shape. Substantial changes in what looked normal were accompanied by congruent changes in what looked attractive, suggesting that a normal or average body shape may function as a reference point against which body attractiveness is judged.
Minerva Pediatr. 2005 Dec;57(6):337-58.
Violent video game effects on children and adolescents. A review of the literature.
Gentile DA, Stone W.
Studies of violent video games on children and adolescents were reviewed to: 1) determine the multiple effects; 2) to offer critical observations about common strengths and weaknesses in the literature; 3) to provide a broader perspective to understand the research on the effects of video games. The review includes general theoretical and methodological considerations of media violence, and description of the general aggression model (GAM). The literature was evaluated in relation to the GAM. Published literature, including meta-analyses, are reviewed, as well as relevant unpublished material, such as conference papers and dissertations. Overall, the evidence supports hypotheses that violent video game play is related to aggressive affect, physiological arousal, aggressive cognitions, and aggressive behaviours. The effects of video game play on school performance are also evaluated, and the review concludes with a dimensional approach to video game effects. The dimensional approach evaluates video game effects in terms of amount, content, form, and mechanics, and appears to have many advantages for understanding and predicting the multiple types of effects demonstrated in the literature.
2004
Hawkins N, Richards PS, Granley HM, Stein DM. The impact of exposure to the thin-ideal media image on women. Eat Disord. 2004 Spring;12(1):35-50. Links
The purpose of this study was to experimentally examine the effects of exposure to the thin-ideal body image on women's affect, self-esteem, body satisfaction, eating disorder symptoms, and level of internalization of the thin-ideal. College women (N=145) were randomly exposed to photographs from popular magazines containing either thin-ideal images or neutral images. Exposure to thin-ideal magazine images increased body dissatisfaction, negative mood states, and eating disorder symptoms and decreased self-esteem, although it did not cause more internalization of the thin-ideal. Exposure to thin-ideal media images may contribute to the development of eating disorders by causing body dissatisfaction, negative moods, low self-esteem, and eating disorders symptoms among women.
2003
Andrist LC. Media images, body dissatisfaction, and disordered eating in adolescent women. MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs. 2003 Mar-Apr;28(2):119-23
This article examines the literature related to the media, body image, and diet/weight issues in children and young women. The media holds an awesome power to influence young women, bombarding them with images of abnormally thin models who seem to represent the ideal. When the majority of adolescents inevitably fail to achieve the extremely thin image they crave, body dissatisfaction results, and disordered eating can begin. Emerging research in the pediatric and adolescent literature demonstrates that children as young as 5 are already anxious about their bodies, and want to be thinner. This obsessive interest in body weight is only fueled by a dramatic increase in the number of Internet Web sites devoted to disordered eating. Unfortunately many of the Web sites are "pro-ana" (pro anorexia) and "pro-mia" (pro bulimia); these Web sites encourage young people at risk to begin starving themselves, or to begin binge-purging. As nurses know, each of these scenarios can lead to serious illness, and sometimes to death.
Davison KK, Markey CN, Birch LL. A longitudinal examination of patterns in girls' weight concerns and body dissatisfaction from ages 5 to 9 years.Int J Eat Disord. 2003 Apr;33(3):320-32.
Weight concerns, body dissatisfaction, and weight status were assessed for 182 girls when they were 5, 7, and 9 years old, and their eating attitudes, dietary restraint, and dieting status were assessed when they were 9. Girls tended to maintain their rank in weight concerns and body dissatisfaction across ages 5 to 9 years, and associations among girls' weight concerns, body dissatisfaction, and weight status increased with age. In addition, positive associations were found between changes in girls' weight concerns, body dissatisfaction, and weight status across ages 7 to 9. Girls' who reported high weight concerns or high body dissatisfaction across ages 5 to 7 reported higher dietary restraint, more maladaptive eating attitudes, and a greater likelihood of dieting at age 9, independent of their weight status. Girls' reported weight concerns and body dissatisfaction across middle childhood showed consistency over time, were systematically related to their weight status, and predicted their dietary restraint, eating attitudes, and the likelihood of dieting at age 9.
Utter J, Neumark-Sztainer D, Wall M, Story M. Reading magazine articles about dieting and associated weight control behaviors among adolescents. J Adolesc Health. 2003 Jan;32(1):78-82.
The purpose was to examine the sociodemographic characteristics of adolescents who read magazine articles about dieting/weight loss and the relationship between reading these types of magazine articles and psychosocial well-being and weight control behaviors. Dieting-related magazine exposure was associated with indicators of psychosocial distress and unhealthy dieting; interventions that address media consumption should reach out to all youth regardless of ethnic and social backgrounds
Sands ER, Wardle J. Internalization of ideal body shapes in 9-12-year-old girls.
Int J Eat Disord. 2003 Mar;33(2):193-204.
In Western countries, body dissatisfaction is reported in girls as young as 9 years old. The internalization of the "thin ideal" was predicted to be a critical influence on the development of body dissatisfaction in 356 subjects who were weighed and completed measures of body dissatisfaction, awareness and internalization of the thin ideal, and peer and maternal attitudes and behavior. Exposure to relevant print media was also examined. Body dissatisfaction was associated with a higher body mass index, was not restricted to overweight girls. Internalization mediated the relationship between awareness of the sociocultural standard of appearance and body dissatisfaction. Media exposure and peer and maternal weight-related attitudes and behavior were, in turn, related to awareness, supporting the hypothesized sociocultural processes. Internalization operates as a central component in the development of body dissatisfaction, occurring at a young age in some girls and therefore may be a suitable target for preventive strategies.
2002
Johnson JG, Cohen P, Smailes EM, Kasen S, Brook JS. Television viewing and aggressive behavior during adolescence and adulthood. Science 2002 Mar 29;295(5564):2468-71
Television viewing and aggressive behavior were assessed over a 17-year interval in a community sample of 707 individuals. There was a significant association between the amount of time spent watching television during adolescence and early adulthood and the likelihood of subsequent aggressive acts against others. This association remained significant after previous aggressive behavior, childhood neglect, family income, neighborhood violence, parental education, and psychiatric disorders were controlled statistically.
Earles KA, Alexander R, Johnson M, Liverpool J, McGhee M. Media influences on children and adolescents: violence and sex.
J Natl Med Assoc 2002 Sep;94(9):797-801
The portrayal of violence, sex, and drugs/alcohol in the media has been known to adversely affect the behavior of children and adolescents. There is a strong association between perceptions of media messages and observed behavior, especially with children. Lately, there has been more of a focus in the public health/medical field on media influences of youth and the role of the pediatrician and/or healthcare worker in addressing this area of growing concern. There is a need to explicitly explore the influences of media violence, sex, and drugs/alcohol on youth within the context of the Social Learning Theory. Implications of these influences are discussed, and recommendations for pediatricians and/or health care workers who interact with children and adolescents are described. Pediatricians and health care workers should incorporate media exposure probes into the developmental history of their patients and become knowledgeable about the effects of medial influences on youth.
Durkin SJ, Paxton SJ. Predictors of vulnerability to reduced body image satisfaction and psychological wellbeing in response to exposure to idealized female media images in adolescent girls. J Psychosom Res. 2002 Nov;53(5):995-1005.
Predictors of change in body satisfaction, depressed mood, anxiety and anger, were examined following exposure to idealized female advertising images in Grades 7 and 10 girls. Stable body dissatisfaction, physical appearance comparison tendency, internalization of thin ideal, self-esteem, depression, identity confusion and body mass index (BMI) were assessed. One week later, participants viewed magazine images, before and after which they completed assessments of state body satisfaction, state depression, state anxiety and state anger. Participants were randomly allocated to view either images of idealized females (experimental condition) or fashion accessories (control condition). For both grades, there was a significant decrease in state body satisfaction and a significant increase in state depression attributable to viewing the female images. In Grade 7 girls in the experimental condition, decrease in state body satisfaction was predicted by stable body dissatisfaction and BMI, while significant predictors of decreases in the measures of negative affect included internalization of the thin-ideal and appearance comparison. In Grade 10 girls, reduction in state body satisfaction and increase in state depression was predicted by internalization of the thin-ideal, appearance comparison and stable body dissatisfaction. These findings indicate the importance of individual differences in short-term reaction to viewing idealized media images.
Becker AE, Burwell RA, Gilman SE, Herzog DB, Hamburg P. (2002) Eating behaviors and attitudes following prolonged exposure to television among ethnic Fijian adolescent girls Br J Psychiatry ;180:509-14.
This study examined the impact of prolonged exposure to TV on disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in teens from Fiji. These subjects were chosen because they had previous limited exposure to TV. Fijian teens were tested before and after prolonged television exposure using an eating attitudes test, and interview. A subset of subjects had their responses analyzed for content relating TV exposure to issues of body image. Disordered eating was significantly more prevalent following exposure to TV. Subjects exposed to TV revealed greater interest in weight loss in order to model themselves after the TV characters.
Stice E, Whitenton K. Dev Psychol 2002 Risk factors for body dissatisfaction in adolescent girls: a longitudinal investigation.
Sep;38(5):669-78
Because few prospective studies have examined predictors of body dissatisfaction--an established risk factor for eating disorders--the authors tested whether a set of socio-cultural, biological, interpersonal, and affective factors predicted increases in body dissatisfaction using longitudinal data from adolescent girls (N = 496). Elevated adiposity, perceived pressure to be thin, thin-ideal internalization, and social support deficits predicted increases in body dissatisfaction, but early menarche, weight-related teasing, and depression did not. There was evidence of 2 distinct pathways to body dissatisfaction--1 involving pressure to be thin and 1 involving adiposity. Results support the contention that certain socio-cultural, biological, and interpersonal factors increase the risk for body dissatisfaction, but suggest that other accepted risk factors are not related to this outcome.
Botta RA, Dumlao R. (2002) How do conflict and communication patterns between fathers and daughters contribute to or offset eating disorders?
Health Commun;14(2):199-219.
A study of 210 college age women demonstrated than skilled conflict resolution and open communication between fathers and daughters may help offset eating disorders. However, a lack of these skills and inability to resolve conflicts can lead to increased disordered eating.
Neumark-Sztainer D, Falkner N, Story M, Perry C, Hannan PJ, Mulert S. Weight-teasing among adolescents: correlations with weight status and disordered eating behaviors.Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2002 Jan;26(1):123-31
This study assessed the prevalence of perceived weight-teasing and associations with unhealthy weight-control behaviors and binge eating in a group of 4746 adolescents from St Paul/Minneapolis public schools. There were significant associations between perceived weight-teasing and weight status; both overweight and underweight youth reported higher levels of teasing than average weight youth. Very overweight youth (body mass index (BMI) > or = 95th percentile) were most likely to be teased about their weight; 63% of very overweight girls, and 58% of very overweight boys reported being teased by their peers, while weight-teasing by family members was reported by 47% of these girls and 34% of these boys. Youth who were teased about their weight, particularly overweight girls, reported that it bothered them. Perceived weight-teasing was significantly associated with disordered eating behaviors among overweight and non-overweight girls and boys. For example, among overweight youth, 29% of girls and 18% of boys who experienced frequent weight-teasing reported binge-eating as compared to 16% of girls and 7% of boys who were not teased. Many adolescents, in particular those who are overweight, report being teased about their weight and being bothered by the teasing. Weight-teasing is associated with disordered eating behaviors that may place overweight youth at increased risk for weight gain. Educational interventions and policies are needed to curtail weight-related mistreatment among youth.
Johnson JG, Cohen P, Kasen S, Brook JS. (2002) Eating disorders during adolescence and the risk for physical and mental disorders during early adulthood Arch Gen Psychiatry Jun;59(6):545-52.
A sample of 717 teens and their mothers were studied in NY via interview. The teens average age was 13.8 years. The teens with eating disorders were at risk for anxiety disorders, heart problems, chronic pain, chronic fatigue, infectious diseases, limited activities due to poor health, insomnia, neurological problems and attempts at suicide. Problems with eating and weight during adolescence predicted poor health outcomes during adulthood.
Packard P, Krogstrand KS. (2002) Half of rural girls aged 8 to 17 years report weight concerns and dietary changes, with both more prevalent with increased age J Am Diet Assoc 102(5):672-7.
A sample of rural white women and girls (N=333) aged 8 to 17 years, completed a weight concerns and dieting behavior questionnaire, a body image assessment, and a self-rating of sexual maturity, and 230 subjects completed 3-day diet diaries. More than half (52%) of the subjects reported 1 or more weight concerns and dieting behaviors. This pattern increased with age. Friends dieting positively influenced scores for 8- to 14-year olds, and a dieting family member meant higher scores for all ages studied. Although most wanted to be smaller, there was little body image dissatisfaction. Girls (aged 11 to 17 years) who dieted had greater body dissatisfaction and significantly lower but adequate diets compared to those who did not diet. Inverse relationships were found for the 11- to 14-year olds between diet adequacy and body image dissatisfaction, weight concerns, and dieting behaviors. This age appears important because actual weight and dieting concerns may begin earlier, and by age 11 years, negatively affect diet quality.
Steinhausen HC. (2002) The outcome of anorexia nervosa in the 20th century Am J of Psychiatry Aug;159(8):1284-93 .
Of 5,590 subjects with anorexia nervosa studied since 1950, mortality rates were found to be high. Of the survivors, less than half recovered, but 33% improved. Twenty percent remained chronically ill. Other psychiatric issues were commonly present in addition to the illness. Indicators of unfavorable outcomes included vomiting, bulimia, and purgative abuse, chronicity of illness, and obsessive-compulsive personality symptoms
Troop NA, Bifulco A. (2002) Childhood social arena and cognitive sets in eating disorders Br J Clin Psychol 41(Pt 2):205-11.
A sample of 43 women with a history of eating disorders and 20 women with no such history were interviewed about their feelings and experiences of loneliness, shyness and inferiority in childhood and adolescence. Women with a history of anorexia nervosa of the binge/purge subtype reported higher levels of loneliness, shyness and feelings of inferiority in adolescence than did women with no history of an eating disorder, and women with a history of bulimia nervosa reported higher levels of shyness. However, this was not true for earlier childhood where such feelings did not differ significantly between groups. This difference could not be accounted for by current depressive disorder, recovery from the eating disorder or level of victimization in adolescence.
2001
Field AE, Camargo CA, Taylor CB, Berkey CS, Roberts SB, Colditz GA. Peer, parent, and media influences on the development of weight concerns and frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls and boys. Pediatrics. 2001 Jan;107(1):54-60.
OBJECTIVE: To assess prospectively the influence of peers, parents, and the media on the development of weight concerns and frequent dieting. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. SETTING: Questionnaires mailed annually to participants throughout the United States. PARTICIPANTS: One-year follow-up of 6770 girls and 5287 boys who completed questionnaires in 1996 and 1997 and were between 9 and 14 years of age in 1996. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Onset of high levels of concern with weight and dieting frequently to control weight. RESULTS: During 1 year of follow-up, 6% of girls and 2% of boys became highly concerned with weight and 2% of girls and 1% of boys became constant dieters. Peer influence was negligible. Independent of age and body mass index, both girls (odds ratio [OR]): 1.9; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.1-3.1) and boys (OR: 2.7; 95% CI: 1.1-6. 4) who were making a lot of effort to look like same-sex figures in the media were more likely than their peers to become very concerned with their weight. Moreover, both girls (OR: 2.3; 95% CI: 1.1-5.0) and boys (OR: 2.6; 95% CI: 1.1-6.0) who reported that their thinness/lack of fat was important to their father were more likely than their peers to become constant dieters. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that parents and the media influence the development of weight concerns and weight control practices among preadolescents and adolescents. However, there are gender differences in the relative importance of these influences.
Villani S. Impact of media on children and adolescents: a 10-year review of the research. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2001 Apr;40(4):392-401
Media categories researched with computer technology included television and movies, rock music and music videos, advertising, video games, and computers and the Internet. Research prior to 1990 documented that children learn behaviors and have their value systems shaped by media. Media research since has focused on content and viewing patterns. The primary effects of media exposure are increased violent and aggressive behavior, increased high-risk behaviors, including alcohol and tobacco use, and accelerated onset of sexual activity. The newer forms of media have not been adequately studied, but concern is warranted through the logical extension of earlier research on other media forms and the amount of time the average child spends with increasingly sophisticated media.
Anderson DR, Huston AC, Schmitt KL, Linebarger DL, Wright JC. Early childhood television viewing and adolescent behavior: the recontact study. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev 2001;66(1):I-VIII, 1-147
A follow-up of 570 adolescents who had been studied as preschoolers in one of two separate investigations of television use was completed. The primary goal of the study was to determine the long-term relations between preschool television viewing and adolescent achievement, behavior, and attitudes. Using a telephone interview and high school transcripts, we assessed adolescent media use; grades in English, science, and math; leisure reading; creativity; aggression; participation in extracurricular activities; use of alcohol and cigarettes; and self-image. In each domain, we tested theories emphasizing the causal role of television content (e.g., social learning, information processing) as contrasted with those theories positing effects of television as a medium, irrespective of content (e.g., time displacement, pacing, interference with language). The results provided much stronger support for content-based hypotheses than for theories emphasizing television as a medium; moreover, the patterns differed for boys and girls. Viewing educational programs as preschoolers was associated with higher grades, reading more books, placing more value on achievement, greater creativity, and less aggression. These associations were more consistent for boys than for girls. By contrast, the girls who were more frequent preschool viewers of violent programs had lower grades than those who were infrequent viewers. These associations held true after taking into account family background, other categories of preschool viewing, and adolescent media use. One hypothesis accounting for the sex differences is that early experiences, such as television viewing, have greater effects when they counteract normative developmental trends and predominant sex-typed socialization influences than when they reinforce them. Adolescents in the study used both television and print media to support ongoing interests. Television content (e.g., entertainment, sports, or world events) predicted extracurricular activities, role models, and body image. The only evidence for possible effects of television as a medium was the positive relation of total viewing to obesity for girls. The medium of television is not homogeneous or monolithic, and content viewed is more important than raw amount. The medium is not the message: The message is.
Robinson TN, Wilde ML, Navracruz LC, Haydel KF, Varady A. Effects of reducing children's television and video game use on aggressive behavior: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2001 Jan;155(1):17-23
The relationship between exposure to aggression in the media and children's aggressive behavior is well documented. However, few potential solutions have been evaluated. Two sociodemographically and scholastically matched public elementary schools in San Jose, CA were studied. Third- and fourth-grade students (mean age, 8.9 years) and their parents or guardians participated. Children in one elementary school received an 18-lesson, 6-month classroom curriculum to reduce television, videotape, and video game use. In September (preintervention) and April (postintervention) of a single school year, children rated their peers' aggressive behavior and reported their perceptions of the world as a mean and scary place. A 60% random sample of children were observed for physical and verbal aggression on the playground. Parents were interviewed by telephone and reported aggressive and delinquent behaviors on the child behavior checklist. The primary outcome measure was peer ratings of aggressive behavior. Compared with controls, children in the intervention group had statistically significant decreases in peer ratings of aggression and observed verbal aggression. Differences in observed physical aggression, parent reports of aggressive behavior, and perceptions of a mean and scary world were not statistically significant but favored the intervention group. An intervention to reduce television, videotape, and video game use decreases aggressive behavior in elementary schoolchildren. These findings support the causal influences of these media on aggression and the potential benefits of reducing children's media use.
Anderson CA, Bushman BJ. 2001Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: a meta-analytic review of the scientific literature. Psychol Sci Sep;12(5):353-9
Research on exposure to television and movie violence suggests that playing violent video games will increase aggressive behavior. A meta-analytic review of the video-game research literature reveals that violent video games increase aggressive behavior in children and young adults. Experimental and non-experimental studies with males and females in laboratory and field settings support this conclusion. Analyses also reveal that exposure to violent video games increases physiological arousal and aggression-related thoughts and feelings. Playing violent video games also decreases pro-social behavior.
Dunkley TL, Wertheim EH, Paxton SJ. Examination of a model of multiple sociocultural influences on adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction and dietary restraint.Adolescence 2001 Summer;36(142):265-79
This study examined the perceived role of three types of socio-cultural agents (peers, parents, and media) in influencing body dissatisfaction and dietary restraint in adolescent girls. Participants were 577 grade 10 girls from six schools who completed questionnaires in class and had height and weight measured. While current body size strongly predicted ideal body size and body dissatisfaction, perceived influence of multiple socio-cultural agents regarding thinness also had a direct relationship with body ideal and dissatisfaction. Dietary restraint was predicted directly from body dissatisfaction and socio-cultural influences. Peers, parents, and media varied in their perceived influence. The findings support the idea that those girls who show the most body dissatisfaction and dietary restraint live in a subculture supporting a thin ideal and encouraging dieting.
McFarlane T, McCabe RE, Jarry J, Olmsted MP, Polivy J. Weight-related and shape-related self-evaluation in eating-disordered and non-eating-disordered women. Int J Eat Disord 2001 Apr;29(3):328-35
Weight- and shape-related self-evaluation refers to the process whereby an individual determines her self-worth based on an evaluation of her body weight and shape. The purpose of this study was to further our understanding of weight-related self-evaluation in eating-disordered women. Eating-disordered patients, restrained eaters, and unrestrained eaters completed a questionnaire that examined dimensions of weight-related self-evaluation. The results revealed that weight-related self-evaluation is a feature shared, to some extent, by both eating-disordered patients and restrained eaters. However, eating-disordered patients extend weight-related self-evaluation to include more domains of self-esteem than did restrained eaters.
Koskelainen M, Sourander A, Helenius H.( 2001) Dieting and weight concerns among Finnish adolescents Nord J Psychiatry;55(6):427-31 .
This study examined factors associated with dieting and weight concerns among adolescents via survey of 1458 7th and 9th graders in two cities in Finland. According to the results, dieting and weight concerns were extremely common among Finnish adolescents. For all aspects of weight control and dieting concerns, the rates of occurrence were greater among girls. A high level of dieting concerns was associated with female gender, body mass, emotional, conduct, and hyperactivity symptoms, and alcohol use.
2000
Hanley AJ, Harris SB, Gittelsohn J, Wolever TM, Saksvig B, Zinman B. Overweight among children and adolescents in a Native Canadian community: prevalence and associated factors.
Am J Clin Nutr 2000 Mar;71(3):693-700
The prevalence of pediatric obesity in North America is increasing. Native American children are at especially high risk. The objective of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of pediatric overweight and associated behavioral factors in a Native Canadian community with high rates of adult obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Height and weight were measured in 445 children and adolescents aged 2-19 y. Fitness level, television viewing, body image concepts, and dietary intake were assessed in 242 subjects aged 10-19 y. Overweight was defined as a body mass index > or =85th percentile value for age- and sex-specific reference data from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey We examined factors associated with overweight, with adjustment for age and sex. The overall prevalence of overweight in subjects aged 2-19 y was significantly higher than reference. In the subset aged 10-19 y, 5 or more hours of television viewing per day was associated with a significantly higher risk of overweight than was2 hours a day or less. Subjects in the third and fourth quartiles of fitness had a substantially lower risk of overweight than did those in the first quartile. Fiber consumption on the previous day was associated with a decreased risk of overweight. Pediatric overweight is a harbinger of future diabetes risk and indicates a need for programs targeting primary prevention of obesity in children and adolescents.
Strasburger VC, Donnerstein E. Children, adolescents, and the media in the 21st century. Adolesc Med 2000 Feb;11(1):51-68
American children and adolescents spend an average of 3-5 hours per day with a variety of media, including television, radio, videos, videogames, and the Internet. Considerable research exists to document concerns about media violence, the impact of media on teen sexual attitudes and behavior, the relationship between alcohol and cigarette advertising and adolescent drug use, and the impact of R-rated films on attitudes about sexual violence. Very little research exists concerning adolescents' use of the Internet and the potential behavioral impact, but many parents and professionals are concerned. Solutions include: better programming, stricter regulation by parents, media education at home and in schools, and greater advocacy on the part of health professionals.
Vander Wal JS, Thelen MH. Eating and body image concerns among obese and average-weight children.Addict Behav 2000 Sep-Oct;25(5):775-8
Research compared obese and average-weight children with regard to concerns about being or becoming overweight, history of dieting, concerns about the effects of eating food, and perceived discrepancy between real and ideal body image. The subjects included 526 obese and average-weight elementary-age school children to whom questionnaires were administered. Gender (male/female), obesity status (obese/average-weight), and grade level (lower elementary/upper elementary) were considered. Obese children were significantly more likely to engage in dieting behaviors, to express concern about their weight, to restrain their eating, and to exhibit more dissatisfaction with their body image than average-weight children. Girls were more likely to exhibit these behaviors than were boys. These findings suggest the importance of studying the emergence of disordered eating habits in childhood.
Borzekowski DL, Robinson TN, Killen JD. Does the camera add 10 pounds? Media use, perceived importance of appearance, and weight concerns among teenage girls. J Adolesc Health 2000 Jan;26(1):36-41
The relationship between use of electronic media and perceived importance of appearance and weight concerns among adolescent girls was studied in 837 ninth-grade girls attending public high school in San Jose, California. Physical measures and self-report surveys were obtained from the sample that was 36% Latino, 24% White, 22% Asian, 8% Black, and 10% other. Analyses were performed with ethnicity, body mass index (BMI), perceived importance of appearance, weight concerns, and media use (based on self-reported average weekly use of television, videotapes, video and computer games, and music videos). Total media use was not significantly related to perceived importance of appearance or weight concerns. When media use was separated into distinct media genres, only hours of watching music videos was related to perceived importance of appearance and weight concerns. After controlling for BMI and ethnicity, no media use variables were significantly associated with either perceived importance of appearance or weight concerns.
Anderson CA, Dill KE.J Video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the laboratory and in life. Pers Soc Psychol 2000 Apr;78(4):772-90
Two studies examined violent video game effects on aggression-related variables. Study 1 found that real-life violent video game play was positively related to aggressive behavior and delinquency. The relation was stronger for individuals who are characteristically aggressive and for men. Academic achievement was negatively related to overall amount of time spent playing video games. In Study 2, laboratory exposure to a graphically violent video game increased aggressive thoughts and behavior. In both studies, men had a more hostile view of the world than did women. The results from both studies are consistent with the General Affective Aggression Model, which predicts that exposure to violent video games will increase aggressive behavior in both the short term (e.g., laboratory aggression) and the long term (e.g., delinquency).
Byely L, Archibald AB, Graber J, Brooks-Gunn J. (2000) A prospective study of familial and social influences on girls' body image and dieting Int J Eat Disord ;28(2):155-64.
A study of 77 early teens were studied to examine the emergence of concerns with the body in relation to the girl's perceptions of family relationships, maternal dieting and body image, and family/peer pressures to diet. The teens were studied at two points in time, one year apart. The girls' perceptions of family relations and the mothers' perceptions of the daughters weight at the first study period, was predictive of the girls' dieting behavior at the second study period. The girls' previous body image and dieting behaviors significantly predicted more body dissatisfaction 1 year later.
Gardner RM, Stark K, Friedman BN, Jackson NA. Predictors of eating disorder scores in children ages 6 through 14: a longitudinal study.J Psychosom Res 2000 Sep;49(3):199-205
The objective of this study was to identify variables that predict higher eating disorder scores in non-clinical boys and girls ages 6 through 14. Two hundred sixteen children participated and were tested annually for 3 years. A TV-video procedure was used to measure the accuracy of body size judgments. Variables examined included demographic, familial, sociocultural, social, esteem, and clinical variables. Predictors of higher eating disorder scores for both sexes included height and weight, children's perceptions of parental concerns about their body size, low body esteem, and depression. For girls only, a larger perceived body size and smaller idealized body size were also predictors. Teasing was a predictor for boys only. An analysis of longitudinal changes suggests that low body esteem becomes a significant factor around age 9, depression emerges as a predictor at age 10, and body size judgments in perceived and ideal sizes at ages 11 and 12. Changes over 2 years in individuals' weight and height, teasing, body dissatisfaction, and eating disorder scores were also found to predict higher eating disorder scores.
Neumark-Sztainer D, Hannan PJ. Weight-related behaviors among adolescent girls and boys: results from a national survey. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2000 Jun;154(6):569-77
A sample of 6728 adolescents in grades 5 to 12 were surveyed regarding dieting and disordered eating (binge-purge cycling). Approximately 24% of the population was overweight. Almost half of the girls (45%) reported that they had at some point been on a diet, compared with 20% of the boys. Disordered eating was reported by 13% of the girls and 7% of the boys. Strong correlates of these behaviors included overweight status, low self-esteem, depression, suicidal ideation, and substance use. Almost half of the adolescents (38%-53%) reported that a health care provider had at some point discussed nutrition or weight with them. Discussions on eating disorders were reported by lower percentages of girls (24%) and boys (15%).
Byely L, Archibald AB, Graber J, Brooks-Gunn J. A prospective study of familial and social influences on girls' body image and dieting. Int J Eat Disord 2000 Sep;28(2):155-64
This study examined the emergence of body image concerns and dieting behaviors in early adolescence as a function of girls' perceptions of family relationships, maternal modeling of dieting behaviors and body image concerns, and familial and peer pressures to diet. Self-report measures were obtained from 77 girls (mean age = 12.3 years) and their mothers and were repeated 1 year later. Girls' perceptions of family relations and mothers' perceptions of daughters' weight at Time 1 significantly predicted girls' dieting behavior 1 year later, over and above Time 1 dieting and body image. Only girls' previous body image and dieting behaviors significantly predicted more body dissatisfaction 1 year later. Girls' body image was found to mediate the relationship between family relations and dieting at Time 1 assessment, but not over time.
Davison KK, Markey CN, Birch LL. (2000) Etiology of body dissatisfaction and weight concerns among 5-year-old girls Appetite ;35(2):143-51.
For girls and parents, higher weight status was associated with greater body dissatisfaction, which in turn was associated with higher weight concerns. No direct relationship was found between girls' weight status and girls' weight concerns. Girls' body dissatisfaction and mothers' weight concerns, however, were associated with higher weight concerns among girls. In conclusion, relationships among weight status, body dissatisfaction, and weight concerns for 5-year-old girls parallel those reported among adults. In addition, results suggest that the etiology of weight concerns in young girls may be linked to girls' subjective evaluations of their weight status (body dissatisfaction) in combination with weight concerns expressed by their mothers.
Schur EA, Sanders M, Steiner H. Body dissatisfaction and dieting in young children Int J Eat Disord 2000 Jan;27(1):74-82.
Sixty-two third through sixth-grade boys and girls completed interviews and questionnaires regarding eating behavior, attitudes toward dieting, and body dissatisfaction. Fifty percent of the children wanted to weigh less and 16% reported attempting weight loss. Children were well informed about dieting and were most likely to believe that dieting meant changing food choices and exercising as opposed to restricting intake. Their primary source of information was the family. Seventy-seven percent of children mentioned hearing about dieting from a family member, usually a parent.
Prior to 2000
Charren P, Gelber A, Arnold M. Media, children, and violence: a public policy perspective.Pediatrics 1994 Oct;94(4 Pt 2):631-7
Pediatrician advocacy concerning the impact of television violence on children should be clearly grounded in the holistic concern of pediatricians with children's health and well-being. Pediatricians should not promote legislative or regulatory efforts to reduce children's exposure to television violence by proscribing certain kinds of program content. Instead, priority should be given to strategies that improve the content and quality of television programming viewed by children and that enhance the viewing choices made by children and their families. Such strategies include providing parent education and pressing for strong implementation of the Children's Television Act. Pediatricians should dedicate their efforts to increasing the awareness of broadcasters and the general public, acting as educators and persuaders. In order to advocate and educate effectively, pediatricians need to amplify their own knowledge and understanding of television-related issues and their significance. Finally, because children's exposure to television violence is but one part of a larger social context, pediatricians concerned with this issue should devote significant attention to related problems that diminish the health and well-being of children
Field AE, Camargo CA, Taylor CB, Berkey CS, Colditz GA.
Relation of peer and media influences to the development of purging behaviors among preadolescent and adolescent girls. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1999 Nov;153(11):1184-9.
OBJECTIVE: To assess prospectively the relation of peer and media influences on the risk of development of purging behaviors. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. SETTING: One year follow-up of 6982 girls aged 9 to 14 years in 1996 who completed questionnaires in 1996 and 1997 and reported in 1996 that they did not use vomiting or laxatives to control weight. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Self-report of using vomiting or laxatives at least monthly to control weight. RESULTS: During 1 year of follow-up, 74 girls began using vomiting or laxatives at least monthly to control weight. Tanner stage of pubic hair development was predictive of beginning to purge (odds ratio [OR] = 1.8; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.3-2.4). Independent of age and Tanner stage of pubic hair development, importance of thinness to peers (OR = 2.3; 95% CI, 1.8-3.0) and trying to look like females on television, in movies, or in magazines (OR= 1.9; 95% CI, 1.6-2.3) were predictive of beginning to purge at least monthly. Regardless of the covariates included in the logistic regression model, the risk of beginning to purge increased approximately 30% to 40% per 1-category increase in frequency of trying to look like females on television, in movies, or in magazines. CONCLUSIONS: Both peers and popular culture, independent of each other, exert influence on girls' weight control beliefs and behaviors. Therefore, to make eating disorder prevention programs more effective, efforts should be made to persuade the television, movie, and magazine industries to employ more models and actresses whose weight could be described as healthy, not underweight.
Field AE, Cheung L, Wolf AM, Herzog DB, Gortmaker SL, Colditz GA.
Exposure to the mass media and weight concerns among girls. Pediatrics. 1999 Mar;103(3):E36.
To assess the influence of the media on girls' weight concerns, weight control/loss behaviors, and perceptions of body weight and shape a Cross-sectional survey was completed in school. The questionnaire assessed body weight, dissatisfaction with body weight and shape, exposure to fashion magazines, the impact of media on feelings about weight and shape, attributes of and preferences for body types, and whether subjects had gone on a diet to lose weight or initiated exercise because of an article in a magazine. SETTING: Mandatory physical education class in public elementary, junior high, and high schools. PARTICIPANTS: Subjects included 548 5th- through 12th-grade girls in a working-class suburb in the northeastern United States. OUTCOME MEASURES: Perceived influence of fashion magazines on body dissatisfaction, idea of the perfect body shape, dieting to lose weight, and initiating an exercise program. RESULTS: Pictures in magazines had a strong impact on girls' perceptions of their weight and shape. Of the girls, 69% reported that magazine pictures influence their idea of the perfect body shape, and 47% reported wanting to lose weight because of magazine pictures. There was a positive linear association between the frequency of reading women's magazines and the prevalence of having dieted to lose weight because of a magazine article, initiating an exercise program because of a magazine article, wanting to lose weight because of pictures in magazines, and feeling that pictures in magazines influence their idea of the perfect body shape. In multivariate logistic regression models controlling for weight status (overweight vs not overweight), school level (elementary vs junior high school, elementary vs high school), and race/ethnic group, girls who were frequent readers of fashion magazines were two to three times more likely than infrequent readers to diet to lose weight because of a magazine article (odds ratio [OR] = 2.11, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.19-3.75); to exercise to lose weight because of a magazine article (OR = 3.02, 95% CI: 1.77-5.17); and to feel that magazines influence what they believe is the ideal body shape (OR = 2.81; 95% CI: 1.72-4.58). In addition, moderate-frequency readers were more likely than infrequent readers of fashion magazines to report exercising because of a magazine article (OR = 1.94; 95% CI: 1.14-3.30) and feeling that magazines influence what they believe is the ideal body shape (OR = 2.03; 95% CI: 1.30-3.15). DISCUSSION: The majority of the preadolescent and adolescent girls in this school-based study were unhappy with their body weight and shape. This discontentment was strongly related to the frequency of reading fashion magazines. Although previous studies have concluded that the print media promotes an unrealistically thin body ideal, which in turn is at least partially responsible for promoting eating disorders, the present study is the first that we are aware of to assess directly the impact of the print media on the weight and body shape beliefs of young girls. We observed that the frequency of reading fashion magazines was positively associated with the prevalence of having dieted to lose weight, having gone on a diet because of a magazine article, exercising to lose weight or improve body shape, and deciding to exercise because of a magazine article. Given the substantial health risk associated with overweight and the fact that during the past 2 decades the prevalence of overweight has increased sharply among children and adolescents, it is not prudent to suggest that overweight girls should accept their body shape and not be encouraged to lose weight. However, aspiring to look like underweight models may have deleterious psychological consequences. The results suggest that the print media aimed at young girls could serve a public health role by refraining from relying on models who are severely underweight and printing more articles on the benefits of physical
Friedlander BZ. Community violence, children's development, and mass media: in pursuit of new insights, new goals, and new strategies.
Psychiatry 1993 Feb;56(1):66-81
Community violence that victimizes children is an unmitigated evil that is exacerbated by vast economic and social forces that leave people in central cities and the rural countryside adrift on seas of hopelessness, group disintegration, and alienation. The contemporary drug scene and the easy availability of guns greatly intensify violence on a local scale, while crimes of violence, especially with guns, appear to be level or declining in the nation as a whole. Claims that the persistently high levels of violence in mass media, mostly television, are largely responsible for violence in society represent narrow views of very large issues. These narrow views overlook essential elements of both phenomena--violence and media. Direct models of interpersonal violence in families and in the community probably give rise to more violent behavior than indirect models in media. Disinhibitory and provocative aspects of media probably do as much or more to trigger violent behavior than violent narratives and violent actions. Comprehensive meta-analysis indicates that pro-social messages on television can have greater effects on behavior than antisocial messages. These data support the contention that mass media can play a strong and positive role in alleviating some of the distress of victims of community violence, and in redirecting the behavior of some of its perpetrators so as to protect the children.
Huesmann LR, Eron LD, Klein R, Brice P, Fischer P. Mitigating the imitation of aggressive behaviors by changing children's attitudes about media violence.
J Pers Soc Psychol 1983 May;44(5):899-910
A sample of 169 first- and third-grade children, selected because of their high exposure to television violence, was randomly divided into an experimental and a control group. Over the course of 2 years, the experimental subjects were exposed to two treatments designed to reduce the likelihood of their imitating the aggressive behaviors they observed on TV. The control group received comparable neutral treatments. By the end of the second year, the experimental subjects were rated as significantly less aggressive by their peers, and the relation between violence viewing and aggressiveness was diminished in the experimental group.
Liebert RM.J Effects of television on children and adolescents.
Dev Behav Pediatr 1986 Feb;7(1):43-8
The average child born today will, by age 15, have spent more time watching television than going to school. Research has shown that heavy doses of TV violence viewing are associated with the development of aggressive attitudes and behavior. TV viewing also appears to cultivate stereotypic views of gender roles and race. Finally, television commercials often capitalize on children's naivete, and also can foster and reinforce overly materialistic attitudes. All of these adverse effects can be minimized if parents restrict the amount of overall viewing, encourage some programs and discourage others, and talk to children frequently about the meaning of what they see on television.
Pinhas L, Toner BB, Ali A, Garfinkel PE, Stuckless N. The effects of the ideal of female beauty on mood and body satisfaction. Int J Eat Disord. 1999 Mar;25(2):223-6.
OBJECTIVE: The present study examined changes in women's mood states resulting from their viewing pictures in fashion magazines of models who represent a thin ideal. METHOD: Female university students completed the Profile of Mood States (POMS), the Body Parts Satisfaction Scale (BPSS), and the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI). They were then exposed to 20 slides; the experimental group (N = 51) viewed images of female fashion models and a control group (N = 67) viewed slides containing no human figures. All subjects then completed the POMS and the BPSS again. RESULTS: Women were more depressed (R2 = 0.745, p < .05) and more angry (R2 = 0.73, p < .01) following exposure to slides of female fashion models. DISCUSSION: Viewing images of female fashion models had an immediate negative effect on women's mood. This study, therefore, supports the hypothesis that media images do play a role in disordered eating.
Schooler C, Flora Pervasive media violence. JA.Annu Rev Public Health 1996;17:275-98
In this review, we focus our discussion on studies examining effects on children and young adults. We believe that the current epidemic of youth violence in the United States justifies a focus on this vulnerable segment of society. We consider media effects on individual children's behaviors, such as imitating aggressive acts. In addition, we examine how the media influence young people's perceptions of norms regarding interpersonal relationships. Next, we assess mass media effects on societal beliefs, or what children and adolescents think the "real world" is like. We suggest these media influences are cumulative and mutually reinforcing, and discuss the implications of repeated exposure to prominent and prevalent violent media messages. Finally, we catalog multiple intervention possibilities ranging from education to regulation. From a public health perspective, therefore, we evaluate the effects that pervasive media messages depicting violence have on young people and present multiple strategies to promote more healthful outcomes.
Tiggemann M, Pickering AS. Role of television in adolescent women's body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness. Int J Eat Disord 1996 Sep;20(2):199-203
Many authors have implicated the media's promotion of an unrealistically thin ideal for women as a major causal factor in the current high levels of body dissatisfaction and increasing incidence of eating disorders. The present study aimed to investigate the relationship between exposure to one medium, television, and body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness. Questionnaires were administered to 94 adolescent women who reported how much and what television they had watched in the previous week. Body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness were also assessed. Amount of television watched did not correlate with either body dissatisfaction or drive for thinness, but category of program did. Specifically, amount of time spent watching soaps, movies, and (negatively) sport predicted body dissatisfaction, and the watching of music videos predicted drive for thinness. The results are consistent with sociocultural explanations for body dissatisfaction and for the emergence of eating disorders in young women.
Verri AP, Verticale MS, Vallero E, Bellone S, Nespoli L. Minerva [Television and eating disorders. Study of adolescent eating behavior] Pediatr 1997 Jun;49(6):235-43
The media, mainly TV, play a significant social and cultural role and may affect the prevalence and incidence of eating disorders such as bulimia and anorexia nervosa. Their influence acts mainly by favoring a tall and thin body as the only fashionable for female adolescents: your social success depends primarily and totally by your physical appearance and you can, (and must), shape your body as you like better. Our research aims to analyze the attitude of adolescent people toward the TV and to investigate: 1) time spent watching TV programs; 2) the influence of TV on the personal choices of goods to buy; 3) the ideal body images; 4) choice of TV programs. Sixty-seven healthy adolescents (36 F-31 M) were included in our study as controls together with 24 female adolescents with eating disorders. Our results show a psychological dependence of eating disordered adolescents on the TV (longer period of time spent watching TV programs, buying attitudes more influenced by TV advertising). The thin and tall body image is preferred by the eating disordered girls as well as by the controls; however the body appearance and proportions have a predominant and utmost importance only for the eating disorder females. The masculine subjects instead have a preference for a female and masculine opulent body appearance. To prevent the observed increase in prevalence and incidence of eating disorders among adolescents, it is appropriate to control the messages, myths and false hood propagated by media, TV in particular.
Willis E, Strasburger VC. Media violence. Pediatr Clin North Am 1998 Apr;45(2):319-31
American media are the most violent in the world, and American society is now paying a high price in terms of real life violence. Research has confirmed that mass media violence contributes to aggressive behavior, fear, and desensitization of violence. Television, movies, music videos, computer/video games are pervasive media and represent important influences on children and adolescents. Portraying rewards and punishments and showing the consequences of violence are probably the two most essential contextual factors for viewers as they interpret the meaning of what they are viewing on television. Public health efforts have emphasized public education, media literacy campaign for children and parents, and an increased use of technology to prevent access to certain harmful medial materials.
Wiegman O, Kuttschreuter M, Baarda B. A longitudinal study of the effects of television viewing on aggressive and prosocial behaviours. Br J Soc Psychol 1992 Jun;31 ( Pt 2):147-64
A longitudinal study investigated the extent to which children's exposure to aggressive and pro-social television models in drama programs influences their aggressive and pro-social behavior. In The Netherlands we did not find significant positive correlations between pro-social behavior and the viewing of pro-social behavior on television. Positive correlations were found, however, between aggression and television violence viewing. This relationship disappeared almost completely when corrections for the starting level of aggression and intelligence were applied. The hypothesis, formulated on the basis of social learning theory, that television violence viewing leads to aggressive behavior could not be supported. Our findings are further discussed and compared with the results found in the other countries participating in the international study.
Wiegman O, van Schie EG. Video game playing and its relations with aggressive and prosocial behaviour. Br J Soc Psychol 1998 Sep;37 ( Pt 3):367-78
In this study of 278 children from the seventh and eighth grade of five elementary schools in Enschede, The Netherlands, the relationship between the amount of time children spent on playing video games and aggressive as well as prosocial behaviour was investigated. In addition, the relationship between the preference for aggressive video games and aggressive and prosocial behaviour was studied. No significant relationship was found between video game use in general and aggressive behaviour, but a significant negative relationship with prosocial behaviour was supported. However, separate analyses for boys and girls did not reveal this relationship. More consistent results were found for the preference for aggressive video games: children, especially boys, who preferred aggressive video games were more aggressive and showed less prosocial behaviour than those with a low preference for these games. Further analyses showed that children who preferred playing aggressive video games tended to be less intelligent.
Childress AC, Brewerton TD, Hodges EL, Jarrell MP. The Kids' Eating Disorders Survey (KEDS): a study of middle school students. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1993 Jul;32(4):843-50.
Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are known to occur in children although prevalence studies are lacking. METHOD: Using a newly developed self-report instrument, the Kids' Eating Disorders Survey (KEDS), 3,175 students (1,610 females, 1,565 males) enrolled in grades 5 to 8 were surveyed. More than 40% of respondents reported feeling fat and/or the wish to lose weight. These frequencies of weight control behaviors were reported, many of which were significantly greater in girls than boys (*p < 0.05, chi-square): dieting (31.4%*), fasting (8.7%*), diet pill use (2.4%*), vomiting (4.8%), diuretic use (1.5%). The effects of age, grade, weight, and race on responses are reviewed. Findings demonstrate that development of prevention programs aimed at recognizing problem eating behavior in children is indicated.
Cooper PJ, Goodyer I. Prevalence and significance of weight and shape concerns in girls aged 11-16 years. Br J Psychiatry 1997 Dec;171:542-4
A survey of 11- to 16-year-old girls was conducted to establish the prevalence of significant concerns about body weight and shape characteristics of eating disorders. A total of 1068 girls were screened and 368 interviewed. Significant weight and/or shape concerns were estimated to be present in 14.5% of the 11-to 12-year-olds, 14.9% of the 13-to 14-year-olds and 18.9% of the 15-to 16-year-olds. Only among those aged 15 to 16 was the presence of such concerns associated with a significant level of concurrent behavioral and ideational disturbance. Significant concerns about weight or shape are present in almost one in five 15-to 16-year-old girls, many of whom evidence high levels of ancillary disturbance.
Dixon R, Adair V, O'Connor S. Parental influences on the dieting beliefs and behaviors of adolescent females in New Zealand J Adolesc Health 1996 Oct;19(4):303-7.
A sample of 232, 8th and 9th grade girls attending New Zealand secondary school were questioned regarding their perceptions of being thinner, beliefs about dieting, and their dieting behavior. An association was found between girls' perceptions of the impact of being thinner, dieting beliefs, dieting behaviors, and parental encouragements to diet. In general, parental dieting practices did not influence dieting beliefs except that fathers' dieting behavior was associated with some aspects of girls' dieting behaviors.
Heatherton TF, Mahamedi F, Striepe M, Field AE, Keel P. (1997) A 10-year longitudinal study of body weight, dieting, and eating disorder symptoms J Abnorm Psychol ;106(1):117-25.
A 10-year study of eating attitudes and behaviors was completed with 509 women and 206 men to assess stability and change in eating behaviors that occurred during the transition to early adulthood. Women in the study had substantial declines in disordered eating behavior as well as increased body satisfaction. However, body dissatisfaction and desires to lose weight remained at relatively high levels. Men, who rarely dieted or had eating problems in college, were prone to weight gain following college, and many of them reported increased dieting or disordered eating. Body dissatisfaction remains a problem for a substantial segment of the adult population.
Hill AJ, Franklin JA. (1998) Mothers, daughters and dieting: investigating the transmission of weight control Br J Clin Psychol ;37 ( Pt 1):3-13.
This study examined maternal influences on weight and dieting concerns in 11-year old girls. Two groups of 20 11-year-old girls and their mothers completed assessments of dietary restraint (high or low), body shape preference, self-perception, family functioning and body weight and height. The mothers of high restraint girls did not differ from comparison mothers in their level of dieting, but reported more between-meal snacking and fasting. In addition, they rated their daughters' attractiveness significantly lower than the other mothers. Families with a highly restrained daughter scored significantly lower on perceived family cohesion, organization and moral-religious emphasis.
Killen JD, Taylor CB, Hayward C, Haydel KF, Wilson DM, Hammer L, Kraemer H, Blair-Greiner A, Strachowski D. Weight concerns influence the development of eating disorders: a 4-year prospective study.
J Consult Clin Psychol 1996 Oct;64(5):936-40
This study examined factors associated with the age of onset of partial syndrome eating disorders over a 4-year interval in a community sample (N = 877) of high school-age girls. Four percent developed a partial syndrome eating disorder during the interval. A measure of weight concerns was significantly associated with onset. Girls scoring in the highest quartile on the measure of weight concerns had the highest incidence (10%) of partial syndrome onset, whereas none of the girls in the lowest quartile developed eating disorder symptoms. This finding is consistent with both theoretical and clinical perspectives and may represent a useful step toward the establishment of a rational basis for the choice of a prevention intervention target.
Markovic J, Votava-Raic A, Nikolic S. Study of eating attitudes and body image perception in the preadolescent age.Coll Antropol. 1998 Jun;22(1):221-32.
Eating attitudes and body image have been studied in a group of 109 girls, pupils of the fifth primary school grade (average age 10 years and 8 months). The Children's Eating Attitude Test (ChEAT) has been used in the study of eating attitudes. The mean questionnaire score is 11.38 +/- 8 with a range of 0 to 45. Fourteen girls (12.8%) had a total score higher than 20, making them an eating disorder risk group. A set of seven schematic figures showing silhouettes of girls ranging from very thin to very heavy has been used in the study of body image perception. The girls were supposed to indicate the figure having the highest resemblance to their own figure (self figure), and the figure they would like to have (ideal self figure). The mean value of the current figure was 4.28, and that of the ideal figure 3.95. Satisfaction with their figure was expressed by 46.79% of the girls; 39.45% wanted to be thinner, and 13.45% to be heavier. When these data were compared with BMI, 27.52% (of the total) of the girls wanting to be thinner were found to have a normal BMI, and 11.93% a > 95 centile BMI. Among the girls satisfied with their figure 2 had a low and 2 a high BMI, while 43.12% were within the normal BMI range. Out of the 13.45% of girls wanting to be heavier, 6.42% (of the total) had a low BMI, 6.42% a normal BMI, and 0.92% (one girl) a > 95 centile BMI. The girls were divided into two groups in terms of the ChEAT score: ChEAT+ (anorexia risk) and ChEAT-. The groups differed in terms of body weight and BMI (the ChEAT+ group was heavier); ChEAT+ girls tended to prefer a thinner figure and experienced themselves as being heavier.
Nichter M, Ritenbaugh C, Nichter M, Vuckovic N, Aickin M. (1995) Dieting and "watching" behaviors among adolescent females: report of a multimethod study J Adolesc Health ;17(3):153-62.
A sample of 231 adolescent females was studied via interview, a survey questionnaire, a telephone interview, and food records. Although 44% of the girls reported trying to lose weight on the day of the survey, only 8.6% of the food records reflected dieting days. In interviews, many identified "watching what they eat" as a strategy that allowed them to maintain their weight. Analysis of food record data confirmed a trend toward higher intakes of micronutrients. "Watching" was widely utilized by girls in this sample as a way to maintain weight and promote health.
Ohzeki T, Otahara H, Hanaki K, Motozumi H, Shiraki K. (1993) Eating attitudes test in boys and girls aged 6-18 years: decrease in concerns with eating in boys and the increase in girls with their ages Psychopathology;26(3-4):117-21.
Concerns with eating were studied in 130 Japanese boys and 125 girls aged 6-18 years using the Simplified Eating Attitudes Test (s-EAT). The s-EAT scores in girls slightly increased with age. The mean scores in girls at age 10 years or older were significantly higher than in boys of the same age, suggesting that pubertal girls have more concerns with eating. On the other hand, s-EAT scores in boys that were not overweight decreased as they grew older, contributing, at least partly, to the sexual difference in eating behavior. The mean scores in overweight boys were higher than in boys that were not overweight. The score in boys correlated significantly with weight though there was no significant correlation in girls. These results suggest that, in addition to increased concerns with eating in girls, decreased concerns with age in boys is one of the causes of the sexual difference in eating behavior, especially during puberty. Eating behaviors in girls seem to be less influenced by changes in body weight than in boys.
Shisslak CM, Crago M, McKnight KM, Estes LS, Gray N, Parnaby OG. Potential risk factors associated with weight control behaviors in elementary and middle school girls.J Psychosom Res 1998 Mar-Apr;44(3-4):301-13
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between weight control behaviors and potential risk factors for disordered eating in a sample of young girls. The McKnight Risk Factor Survey was administered to 523 elementary and middle school girls. In the sample of elementary school girls, results indicated that frequency/severity of weight control behaviors was associated with body mass index (BMI), self-confidence, peers' weight-related pressures, ethnicity, and the interaction between having divorced/separated parents and BMI. Sensitivity to peers' weight-related pressures and BMI were also associated with weight control behaviors in the middle school girls, along with poor body image, substance use, having divorced/separated parents, and the interaction between having divorced/separated parents and father's pressure for thinness.
Strauss RS. (1999) Self-reported weight status and dieting in a cross-sectional sample of young adolescents: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med ;153(7):741-7.
Weights and heights were obtained on 1932 adolescents aged 12 to 16 years. Information on adolescents' perception of weight status, desired weight, and weight loss attempts was obtained by questionnaire. The adolescents' reports of whether they considered themselves overweight or normal weight correlated poorly with medical definitions of overweight: 52% of girls who considered themselves overweight were, in fact, normal weight (body mass index < or = 85th percentile), while only 25% of boys who considered themselves overweight were normal weight (P<.001). Adolescent white girls were significantly more likely to consider themselves overweight, even when their weight status was normal, than black girls (P<.001), black boys (P<.001), and white boys (P<.001). Adolescent white girls were also more likely to diet than black girls (P<.001), black boys (P<.001), and white boys (P<.001). Dieting behavior was associated with whether adolescents viewed themselves as overweight independent of whether they actually were overweight. Racial differences between dieting and self-perceived weight status were limited to girls. There were no significant differences in self-perceived weight status (P = .28), dieting behaviors (P = .99), and desire to weigh less (P = .95) among black and white boys.
Baker D, Sivyer R, Towell T Body image dissatisfaction and eating attitudes in visually impaired women.. Int J Eat Disord 1998 Nov;24(3):319-22
The high levels of body dissatisfaction and abnormal eating attitudes currently prevalent in Western societies, have been attributed to the promotion of an unrealistically thin ideal for women. We investigated the role of the visual media by examining the relationship between body image dissatisfaction and eating attitudes in visually impaired women. Questionnaires were administered to 60 women, 20 congenitally blind, 20 blinded later in life, and 20 sighted. Congenitally blind women had lower body dissatisfaction scores and more positive eating attitudes compared to women blinded later in life and sighted women, the latter having the highest body dissatisfaction scores and the most negative eating attitudes. Scores from sighted women were positively correlated with each other. The results suggest the importance of the visual media in promoting unrealistic images of thinness and beauty and are discussed from a socio-cultural perspective.
Wardle J, Beales S. Restraint, body image and food attitudes in children from 12 to 18 years.Appetite 1986 Sep;7(3):209-17
Body image, dietary restraint, attitudes to food and food intake pattern were assessed in a survey of 348 London schoolchildren from three age groups. The data revealed striking sex differences in body image, restraint and food attitudes, even in the youngest age group (12 to 13 years). The majority of girls felt too fat, attempted to restrict their food intake, and expressed guilt about eating. The boys expressed much less concern in all these areas. No differences were found across the age groups. The results suggested that normal English girls experience significant levels of distress over eating and weight.
Ohtahara H, Ohzeki T, Hanaki K, Motozumi H, Shiraki K. Abnormal perception of body weight is not solely observed in pubertal girls: incorrect body image in children and its relationship to body weight.Acta Psychiatr Scand 1993 Mar;87(3):218-22
Perceived actual body weight and perceived ideal weight were assessed in 255 Japanese children and adolescents (130 boys, 125 girls) aged 6 years through 18 years using the drawing test to clarify whether they wanted to be thinner or to gain weight. More than half (68%) of the girls attending high school and 41% of the elementary school girls perceived their ideal weight to be less than the standard. The mean difference between the perceived actual weight and the ideal weight was positive in the high school girls of normal weight as well as in the overweight girls, meaning that even the normal-weight girls wanted to lose weight. The difference was also slightly positive in the underweight girls. The difference in the high school boys was negative, demonstrating that they wished to gain weight. It is suggested that girls want to lose weight even before adolescence; this tendency becomes more prominent in the high school period and is mostly unrelated to their own weight.
Stein KF, Hedger KM. Body weight and shape self-cognitions, emotional distress, and disordered eating in middle adolescent girls. Arch Psychiatr Nurs 1997 Oct;11(5):264-75
Stability of body weight/shape self-schema and possible self was studied in a sample of middle adolescent girls during their transition from junior high to high school. The relationship between these self-cognitions and emotional distress and disordered eating behaviors was also explored. Subjects (N = 79) completed measures of self-cognitions, competence, and self-esteem in the 8th and 9th grades. Disordered eating and depression were measured in 9th grade. Eighth grade self-schema scores were used to identify the fat/out-of-shape (n = 21) and thin/athletic (n = 20) self-schema groups. For both groups, stability in the body weight/shape cognitions was found. Girls in the fat/out-of-shape group had lower self-esteem, appearance, and athletic competence scores in both grades and higher dieting and depression scores in 9th grade than the slim/athletic group. Regression analyses showed that the self-schema score was a stronger predictor of the outcomes than weight. Findings suggest that the body weight/shape self-schema plays an important role in adolescent girls' emotional health.
Taylor CB, Sharpe T, Shisslak C, Bryson S, Estes LS, Gray N, McKnight KM, Crago M, Kraemer HC, Killen JD. (1998) Factors associated with weight concerns in adolescent girls Int J Eat Disord ;24(1):31-42.
A sample of 78 elementary and 333 middle school students competed a self- report survey that showed that the importance that peers put on weight and eating was most strongly related to weight concerns in the elementary school girls. Weight concerns were also related to trying to look like girls/women on TV and in magazines as well as body mass index (BMI). In middle school, the importance that peers place on weight and eating was the strongest predictor of weight concerns, with BMI, trying to look like girls/women on TV and in magazines, and being teased about weight also important.
